MEN AND WOMEN IN JUDAISM

Judaism is a religious civilisation of the Jewish people. The term ‘Judaism’ (Hebrew, 'Yahadut') was first used among Greek-speaking Jews in the first century of the Common Era (II Macabees 2:21) and is unknown in the Bible and rabbinic literature. The word ‘Jew’ (Hebrew, 'Yehudi'), is biblical and refers to both someone who originates from the tribe of Judah, and one who lived in the Southern Kingdom of Judah (in the land of Israel), no matter what their tribal origin. Today a Jew is considered to be one who is born to a Jewish mother or has converted to Judaism and accepts the obligation to observe its religious commandments. The written language of the Bible is Hebrew (Hebrew, 'ivrit'), but Aramaic is also an ancient Jewish language which has found its way into the Talmud and other sacred books. Modern Hebrew is spoken by Jews in Israel. Another language associated with Jewish people is 'Yiddish', which is spoken by many Jews of European origin and is still a common language among ultra-Orthodox Jews.

Jewish law, which has continued to develop and change since biblical times, is called 'halakha'. Jewish society is fashioned and ruled by 'halakha', a legal system that pervades all aspects of life, with judicial and legislative functions, both of which are performed by rabbis whose authority is recognised by the Jewish community. 'Halakha' is also a religious system and, as such, its influence is much more pervasive than an ordinary legal system, for it prescribes norms not only of legal behaviour, but also of ethical behaviour and standards. It has moulded the major institutions of Jewish life, including marriage and the family. It is based not only on interpretation of the words of the Biblical texts according to rabbinic religious tradition, but also on the understanding of its intentions and values as transmitted throughout Jewish history.

Judaism is based on the doctrine that there are two sacred Torahs – the Written Torah (the Bible) and the Oral Torah (the traditions, including the rabbinic ones) – out of which the 'halakha' develops. Eventually the Oral Torah was written down as part of Jewish sacred literature. But it was never monolithic in its decisions. Just as in any legal system there can be different legal decisions based on similar cases, so it is in 'halakha'. 'Halakha' has shown amazing flexibility and staying power by being able to accommodate disagreement.

Treatment of women in 'halakha'

The plurality of opinion and interpretation that constitutes 'halakha' also applies to its treatment of women. The attitude of 'halakha' towards women can be characterised as ambivalent rather than monolithic. The input of women into the halakhic process is rare, and it is almost always men who have the authority to make halakhic decisions. In addition, social and cultural needs are major factors in determining the stance of 'halakha'. The status of women is caused in part by the worldview of the males who have created 'halakha', whose modes of thought have led to a mind-set which is unfavourable to women. This may stem from the fact that the deity is usually expressed in masculine terms, with God often described metaphorically as a husband or male parent.

Place of men in Judaism

The husband has control over his wife, and Jewish law objectifies that control in legislation. In biblical law man is master over woman and women are perceived as chattels. The husband is the master ('ba’al'), whose permission to rule over his wife originates in Genesis 3:16, where God tells the first woman that her husband shall rule over her. The word 'ba’al' implies ownership as well as lordship. A man Often the referent of person and personhood is Man ('adam' or 'ish'). Since Hebrew is a gendered language, the plural men ('anashim') can be construed to include women, but very often is not. A man daily recites in the Morning Prayer ('shaharit'), ‘We thank you for not being created a woman’, whereas a woman says, ‘We thank you for creating us in your will.’

Masculinity in Judaism

‘The heroic man ('gibor') is the one who conquers his urges ('kovesh et yitzro')’ (Ethics of the Fathers 4:1). This repudiation of brute strength can be applied to the classic role model of the husband who spends years of studying in the academy ('beit midrash' or 'yeshiva'). Sacrifice of family life for the sake of learning is normative. Intellectual and spiritual pursuits, not physical prowess, are the cultural ideals. gets his wife by taking and possessing her, and if she fails to please him, he can divorce her (Deuteronomy 24: 1). In post-biblical times, a woman is acquired in three ways: with money or something of nominal value, with a marriage contract, or by sexual intercourse (Mishnah Kiddushin 1:1). In marriage, the man is responsible for his wife’s physical (food, clothing and housing) and emotional needs. It is the man, not the woman, who is commanded to procreate. He is the agent, and she the receiver.

By Naomi Graetz in "International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities", edited by Michael Flood, Judith Kegan Gardiner, Bob Pease and Keith Pringe, Routledge, London/New York, 2007, excerpts p. 663-664. Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.

See also:

Men and Women in Hinduism - http://stravaganzastravaganza.blogspot.com.br/2014/01/men-and-women-in-hinduism.html

Men and Women in Islam - http://stravaganzastravaganza.blogspot.com.br/2014/01/men-and-women-in-islam.html

Men and Women in Christianity - http://stravaganzastravaganza.blogspot.com.br/2014/01/men-and-women-in-christianity.html