Poultry were not originally domesticated for the purpose of food but were used for religious, cultural and entertainment purposes eg cock fighting.
It was not until years later, around 1850, that domesticated poultry suddenly became a major international interest. It was during a period know as the 'hen craze' when large amounts of money changed hands to acquire these birds and most of the breeds of chickens currently dominating the world's poultry production systems were developed then.
The History of Domestication
'Poultry' is the name given to birds that have been selected and domesticated by man.The two families of birds which man has found easiest to domesticate are Phasianidae and Anatidae. The former being pheasant-type game birds eg chickens, turkeys, quail, guinea fowl etc and the latter are waterfowl eg ducks and geese.
Years of intense breeding has produced large diversity between the strains of some poultry species and cross breeding has resulted in the production of hybrid offspring that increase the diversity of poultry even further.
The domestication of poultry occurred later than other farm animals such as sheep, cattle and pigs. Modern stocks of poultry probably originate from domesticated fowl from Asia dated back to 2500BC. The earliest evidence of turkey domestication was found in Mexico in 2500BC, and at about the same time ducks were established in China. Geese arrived a bit later on in 1500BC being domesticated by the Egyptians but there is no record of any successful domestication in the West until about 1200AD.
Chickens (Domestic Fowl)
The very first poultry breeders of domestic fowl set out to produce perfect show specimens with efficiency and production performance bearing no significance whatsoever.
Eggs
In the 1950s, one particular breed, the single comb White Leghorn, was used by commercial breeders as a highly productive layer of white eggs. Then later on, in the 1960s, the White Leghorn was crossed with the Rhode Island Red and other minor breeds to produce a brown egg.
Breeding stock is now very carefully selected to produce good quality birds whether they are for laying or meat. There is one cockerel to every dozen hens and the fertile eggs are sent from the breeder to a specialist hatchery where the eggs are incubated for 21 days. The newly hatched chicks are then sent to either a broiler farm if they are for meat or to a rearing farm if they are a laying bird where they are kept for about 17 weeks and then sent to the egg producer.
After the Second World War, there was a change from importing large numbers of eggs in to being totally self-sufficient in egg production by the 1970s. There are a few small producers around but the majority of Britain's eggs come from the 300 or more farms where they are produced intensively from flocks of, on average, 20,000 birds. Target production to 72 weeks of age is in excess of 300
eggs per bird.
There are three main production systems today:
Battery - This is still the number one production system with some 85% of Britain's laying hens being kept like this. The birds are housed in tiered cages inside a large building, which is environmentally controlled to maximise productivity. There is usually 4 or 5 birds to a cage and up to 20,000 birds in one building. Food and water is readily available and the hens are regularly mucked out to prevent disease. There is much controversy about the production method and whether the birds have enough freedom of movement. The EU has introduced regulations stating a minimum cage floor area per bird but as there is no proven scientific answer to how much space a bird actually needs, farmers have tended to take a practical view, concentrating on the health and performance of their flock. If they were not content, they would not lay good eggs.
Barn - (Percheries or Aviaries) - This production method allows the birds to have the run of the building in which they are housed. They are provided with perches and laying boxes and again are kept in environmentally controlled conditions. EU regulations allow 25 birds per square metre but voluntary codes of practice such as The British Egg Industry Council and the RSPCA Freedom Food Standard limit the stocking density to 15.5 birds per square metre. This system requires twice as many stockmen as the cages and there is a higher risk of disease spreading as it is difficult to examine individual birds.
Free Range - The growing awareness for animal welfare has seen consumer interest in Free Range Eggs soar from 1.7% in 1981 to 11% in 1997. Because production costs are higher, the consumer must be prepared to pay extra for the knowledge that the birds have been given the freedom to roam outside. As with the barn system, disease is harder to control and there is also a chance for bullying to develop amongst birds of high and low pecking orders. Stocking density must not exceed one thousand hens per hectare and the birds must be free to roam outside even in mid winter.
Fresh eggs have been a staple of the British diet for a long time now and on average we eat 170 eggs each per year. This gives a total consumption of nearly ten thousand million eggs per year or 27 million eggs per day!
Broilers
The term 'Broiler' is a name given to a chicken that is bred purely for meat production.
They originate from the cock fighting birds of years ago, which developed large breast muscles through their constant battling.
The industry began in the 1950s and ever since then, the management of broilers has been dominated by techniques designed primarily to maximise the growth rate of the birds and produce a good meat yield.
Broilers are bred in a similar way to the laying birds. When they are hatched, they are dispatched to a broiler growing farm where as many as 20,000 birds are housed under the same roof. The birds are not kept in cages but are free to roam around the whole house at will. The welfare of the bird is of paramount importance and managers go to great lengths to ensure the environment in the chicken house is just right. Everything from food and water to ventilation and lighting is controlled and constantly monitored to help ensure maximum growth and quality. Great precautions are also taken against the outbreak of disease both inside the house and outside.
The birds are reared from a day-old to between 40-56 days when they should ideally have reached a weight of 1.5 kg or more. They are then transported to the processing factory where they are stunned and then killed ensuring that stress is kept to an absolute minimum. There are very strict hygiene regulations covering every aspect of processing from the operating procedures to the hygiene of the staff. An independent veterinary practitioner both inspects the birds before and after they are killed. An independent body called the Farm Animal Welfare Centre (FAWC) also monitors the welfare of the birds. After all it is in the best interest of the farmer to keep the birds healthy as sick or stressed birds will not produce good quality meat.
The processing of the chickens is now automated in all the large processing plants. Mechanical rubber fingers that pluck the birds without tearing the skin remove the feathers. They are then eviscerated or dressed and the edible offal eg kidney, liver etc are washed and bagged up and placed inside the bird while the inedible offal is cooked at a very high temperature to sterilise it and then ground into fertilisers, and animal foodstuffs.
Chickens are currently enjoying a rise in popularity and many people are turning to chicken as alternative meat to beef. It is a versatile product and consumers can now choose from fresh or frozen chicken that is whole or they can have value added chicken products which has been portioned or processed into special dishes like Sweet and Sour Chicken or Chicken Nuggets etc. It is a very nutritious food that can make a contribution to a healthy low fat diet; it is also available at very competitive prices.
Consumers are also producing a demand for Free Range Chicken. Because they are raised outdoors, they take longer to mature than other chickens which is one of the reasons why it is more expensive than processed chicken.
Chicken is currently Britain's number one meat and it now has a 37% share of the retail primary meat market. In 1996, overall UK chicken consumption in retail and catering rose by 3.2% in volume to 1,070,000 tones.
The forecast for the future of chicken meat is good and it is predicted that by the year 2000, it will have a 40% volume share of the market at least. As consumers appreciate the versatility of chicken the market will continue to grow and with retailers and producers increasing their range of value added products, this sector will probably reach 40% of the value of the chicken market by the year 2000.
Turkey
The earliest evidence of turkey domestication was in Mexico in 2500 bC.
Early settlers to North America realised the potential value of domesticating turkeys and by the early 17th century they had produced a turkey with acceptable growth characteristics by crossing two subspecies. This bird was know as the American bronze and was a breed that was used right up to the 20th century. The 1920s saw breeders selecting only the large birds with wide breasts and within a few years most of the North American breeding stock consisted of the new broad-breasted varieties. Most of the modern hybrids are based on the Beltsville White.
It was the male birds that showed the greatest increase in size as the male and female turkeys have very different mature body weights. This difference in size has led to problems with mating and so artificial insemination (AI) requiring highly skilled techniques has been developed to provide maximum fertility levels. The modern hybrid turkey will produce around 100 eggs per hen in a 20 week laying season.
Turkeys have been very successfully reared under intensive conditions. They are kept warm or 'brooded' for up to 10 weeks and then weaned off the heat to continue growing for a period of up to 24 weeks either in confinement or on good, clean pastures to encourage their natural grazing habits. Short term rearing from day old to 16 weeks is usually carried out in a turkey house with a controlled environment. Welfare of the birds is a high priority, as overcrowding and poor ventilation will only produce poor results.
Turkey is no longer just seen as Christmas dinner and both retailers and consumers are realising its potential as a year round meat. It is currently Britain's fastest growing meat with an increase last year of 10% of the total volume meat market, which is nearly on a par with lamb.
Whole birds now have a relatively small share of the turkey market, with a whole range of added value turkey products proving increasingly popular especially with younger consumers.
Large families are not so commonplace today as they used to be and turkey rolls and roasts have continued to appeal as an attractive alternative to cooking a whole bird. It is also a lot healthier and convenient than the traditional Sunday roast. With low fat and low calorie benefits along with its versatility, turkey has gone from strength to strength and is pointing the way to a great future.
Ducks
Ducks are the second most common species of poultry in the world after domestic fowl. There are large numbers in many countries and in particular Asia. They are good scavengers and foragers and they can thrive in environments where feed supply is limited.
The traditional breed used is the Aylesbury but the Pennine and the White Table Duck are also good meat birds. Modern technology is of course stepping in to produce an ideal hybrid from a combination of the traditional breeds.
Ducklings are brooded for the first three weeks of their lives and then moved to a farm where they are reared either inside in a purpose built house with plenty of space for movement or they are kept outside on a light sandy soil. They are fattened up for four to five weeks before being slaughtered. Table ducks grow extremely quickly and within this sort of timescale an average bird would reach a live weight of about 2-3 kg.
The market for table ducks has been steadily increasing over the last few years. They are now being managed under more sophisticated conditions than before, improving both the value and the quality of the product.
Geese
The production of geese is still very much a small scale operation and very little has been done to improve the genetics of the bird. The most common types are English Grey, English White and English Grey Black. These breeds are based originally from the Embden and the Toulouse with a few other additions.
Ganders tend to reach a weight of about 8-9 kg and a goose will typically weigh about 7 kg.
Breeding is a very difficult business and only occurs once a year in the Spring. The geese will only breed if they are in absolute harmony with each other. They will then remain together for many years. The best mating ratio is 4 to 5 per gander and each group is kept in their own separate house.
Goose eggs are also produced and production varies from between 30 to 80 eggs in a season.
The market for geese is still very much a Christmas one where they are sold mainly as an alternative to the traditional turkey.
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