Nigeria is located on the western coast of Africa in the central region. Its name is taken from the Niger River, which is not only an important food source but also an important form of transportation. The country is quite large, approximately twice the size of California, and has a mostly humid, tropical climate. The majority of the topography is plains and plateaus; however, there are mountains to the eastern side of the country and the Sahara desert is to the north. These landscape differences introduce variation in the types of foods that may be grown. The rivers also enabled trading of foodstuffs and the migration of people. The slave trade was established in Nigeria by the Portuguese around 1400, with other European traders and eventually the British taking control and establishing Nigeria as a territorial entity in 1914. As a result, the food of the southern United States has been influenced by the traditional foods of Nigeria through the slave trade, while traders coming into the region introduced Asian spices such as cinnamon and nutmeg. Nigeria has the largest population in Africa (148 million people) and accounts for just less than half of the total West African population. There are approximately 200 different ethnic groups, and around 500 different languages are spoken; most residents are multilingual. The largest ethnic groups are the Hausa-Fulani in the north, the Igbo in the southeast, and the Yoruba in the southwest. These ethnic groups also provide the lingua franca for each region, and their languages are designated as national languages. Government business is conducted and written in English. Despite this ethnic and linguistic Nigeria diversity, the country is dominated by just two religions (90% of the total population). The northern region is largely Sunni Muslim although there are a number who belong to Sufi orders. Likewise, the Christians in the south may belong to a number of individual church sects, including Catholic, Methodist, Lutheran, Anglican, and Pentecostal. Although one of the poorest countries in the world, the country is rich in natural resources, including oil and gas but also productive agricultural land able to produce a wide range of fruits and vegetables and support livestock. Nigeria has the second-largest African economy and accounts for 41 percent of the sub-Saharan gross domestic product. Over half of the country’s population (54%) lives on less than one U.S. dollar a day. Life expectancy within the country is just 47 years. Families tend to be large, with an average fertility rate of 5.5 children per woman, and nearly 13 percent of teenage women have children. The infant mortality rate is high, at 19 percent (giving the country a ranking of 13 in the world). Literacy rates in Nigeria are better than for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole (69% compared to 59%), but boys are more likely to be enrolled in school (100%) than are girls (87%), and they attend school for a longer period (the average length of time in school for boys is nine years compared to seven years for girls). Economic data from 2007, however, suggest that inflation has fallen in recent years to around 5.5 percent (consumer prices) and that the current balance of payments is positive (exports exceeding imports). Most farming involves animal husbandry as well as crop production, and the majority of farmers operate small-scale farms of five acres or less that can be managed by hand. The Nigerian government argues that oil is now the primary foreign-exchange earner; however, there has been unrest in the region where oil is produced (the Niger Delta), which has reduced oil exports. Despite the poverty, this is a country full of hope, creativity, and invention. In the recent past the country was ruled by the military; however, in 1999 the transition from military to democratic governance began, and in May 2007 the Umaru Musa Yar’Adua was sworn in as the third democratically elected president. This event is the first instance in Nigeria of a peaceful handover from one civilian government to another. Like the United States, the national governance structure is that of a federation, with a federal government presiding over 36 states.
Food Culture Snapshot
Adé and Sadé Oyelowo live in an affluent area of Lagos. Adé is a headmaster, and Sadé is a teacher. They have three children, a relatively small family by Nigerian standards. Abení, a daughter, is 14 years old. Tunde, their son, is 11 years old. The youngest child, Grace, is 8 years old. All of the children attend their father’s school. The family is Christian and is Yoruba. Their house reflects their more affluent standing and has a kitchen with a gas range and a refrigerator. There is a veranda on the house that overlooks their garden, which has mango and orange trees and a small vegetable patch where Sadé grows yams, carrots, greens, peppers, and onions. The two girls help her with this. Sadé prefers to go to the local market to purchase most of what she needs. She likes the markets because she can meet and talk with the market women and she feels that the food is better quality because it is fresh. For example, buying food in the market means she can also buy whole animals and then cut them up herself at home or live chickens that she can then kill when she is ready to use them. She can also get whole spices, such as nutmeg and pepper, that she then grinds in her mortar and pestle at home. Sometimes she will send the girls to the market after school to buy things for her. The market is not just a place to buy fresh food. She can also buy things like cooking oil for frying meat and plantains, sugar, and tea. She buys rice secretly from a woman who also has a stall at the market, because it is now illegal to import rice, so it must be smuggled into Nigeria. Each day the family gets up at about 5 A.M. They have a small breakfast of thick toast or a porridge made of ground dry maize. The adults drink tea, while the children have hot chocolate. It is Abení’s job to prepare this meal, but Sadé serves it to Adé on the terrace, where he will eat on his own until Tunde is 15 and will join him. The others eat together in the living area, where there is a table. Although school does not start until 8 A.M., Adé and Sadé leave earlier, as they must be at the school by 7 A.M. to prepare. The three children clean up the house and walk to school together later. The school day finishes at 2 P.M., when the three children walk home together unless they have a church or other function after school. The children have a snack on the way home that they purchase from one of the roadside vendors. This snack will often be dodo (fried plantains with chili), as this is a favorite, or chinchin (fried dough) if they want something sweeter. The snack is important because no lunch is served at the school. Sadé arrives home around 4 P.M. after stopping at the market. Sadé then starts preparing the evening meal, which consists of stew and either rice, if it is available, or a gari (ground cassava root) that is made into a thick porridge. The girls help with dinner preparations as it is part of their chores. Adé arrives home about 7 P.M. Once dinner is ready, at about 8 P.M., Sadé serves Adé his dinner on the terrace, bringing it to him on a tray. She and the three children then eat together at the dining table.
While a traditional Nigerian meal would consist of a thick stew and a starch, individual wealth, regional location, religion, and tribal affiliation play a key role in determining the specific character of these items. Meat and fish feature in Nigerian cooking; however, apart from those whose livelihood is through farming or fishing, these foods are affordable only to the very wealthy. As a result, a large proportion of Nigerians are vegetarian out of necessity. For those who have access to meat, this would include goat, cow, chicken, turkey, goose, guinea fowl, and pigeon. The country also has a good source of freshwater fi sh, such as carp available from the Niger and Sokoto rivers, and seafood, including shrimp and crabs. Various varieties of palms are widely available, and as a result palm oil, made from ground palm kernels, is used extensively. There is an abundance of fresh fruit in Nigeria; papayas, pineapple, coconuts, plantains, and mangoes are plentiful. The Muslims in the north do not drink alcohol as those who are caught drinking face strong penalties under sharia law. Non-Muslims sometime drink a fermented palm drink produced locally or wine, beer, or spirits that are imported. Throughout the country men are more likely to drink than women. While Western foods are available in supermarkets, these are also frequented only by the very wealthy. Ordinary Nigerians tend to purchase traditional foodstuff s from local markets and roadside stalls. Because of this provisioning behavior, combined with the diversity of the physical geography of the country, foods take on a regional character. For example, people from the north, who are also mostly Muslim, have diets based on beans and sorghum; those in the eastern part of the country eat pumpkin, dumplings, and yams (not the same as the American sweet potato); the southern people, who are mainly Christian, eat groundnut (peanut)-based stews (see following recipe) and rice as well as pork; and those in the southwestern and central areas (Yoruba people) tend to eat cooked gari (cassava root powder) with okra stews, groundnuts, mushrooms (which are also a harbinger of the ripening of new yams), yams, and rice dishes such as jollof rice . Finally, those living on the coasts are more likely to have seafood stews instead of meat stews, while those near rivers will include freshwater fish stew in their diets. Foods made with milk and milk products are not common, except in the northern parts where the Fulani ethnic groups live. Women and girls from this region will hawk boiled cow milk (mein-shanu), which is then used in cooking. People also use milk in tea and on their breakfast porridge.
(Serves 6)
1 stewing chicken or chicken parts (2–3 lb)
2–3 tsp oil for frying
1 tsp salt
A pinch of cayenne pepper
1 yellow onion, chopped finely
1–2 garlic cloves, chopped
4 c water
1½ c natural peanut butter (preferably with low sugar content)
Cooked rice for 6
Toppings: Chopped tomato, onions, pineapple, orange, papaya, banana, and grated coconut In a large heavy-bottomed pan heat the oil and fry the onion and garlic until soft (5–10 minutes). Add the cayenne pepper. Once the onions and garlic start to caramelize, add the chicken and cover with water to form a broth. Simmer until tender. Once the chicken is cooked, remove the chicken from the broth and debone. Add the peanut butter to the cooking broth and stir until smooth. Return the deboned chicken to the broth and simmer for a half hour or more. If a thicker sauce is desired it can be thickened with cornstarch. Adjust seasoning to taste. Serve over cooked rice (as you would a curry) and sprinkle with fruit toppings.
(Serves 6)
½ tsp grated fresh ginger
½ tsp cinnamon
1 tsp thyme leaves
½ tsp salt
¼ tsp cayenne pepper
1¼ c chicken broth
16 oz chopped tomatoes (if using fresh tomatoes add 1 c water and 1 tsp tomato paste; otherwise, use the juice from the can)
2 tbsp peanut or cooking oil
2–3 lb chicken pieces
1 medium onion, chopped
1 clove garlic, chopped
1 bay leaf
1 c uncooked long-grain rice
Parsley, chopped
First, crush the ginger, cinnamon, thyme, salt, and cayenne pepper with a mortar and pestle. Combine the chicken broth, tomatoes, and either the juice from the can or, if using fresh tomatoes, the water and tomato paste. Add the crushed herbs and spices to this liquid. Set aside.
Next, in a large skillet heat the oil on high heat. Brown the chicken pieces on all sides (about 15 minutes). Once browned, remove the chicken from the skillet. Reduce heat to medium, and add the onion to the pan and cook in the same oil in which the chicken was browned. Soften the onion and add the garlic. Cook until tender but do not brown. Drain off the fat and return the chicken to the pan. Add the broth and tomato mixture to the chicken and the bay leaf. Do not stir. Bring to a boil, then reduce the heat and simmer for 30 minutes, covered. Skim off any fat.
Add the rice, making sure the rice is covered in the liquid. Cover and simmer for an additional 30 minutes, until rice is cooked. Remove the bay leaf. Sprinkle with parsley and serve.
A vegetarian version of this dish can be made by omitting the chicken and substituting vegetables such as green pepper and okra and by using vegetable broth instead of chicken broth.
Food in Nigeria is often well seasoned with salt, pepper (atalodo), and chilies. Refined sugar, however is not traditionally an important part of the Nigerian diet, as many snacks are savory rather than sweet and the norm is to drink water or fruit juice with meals. Examples of snack foods that may be made at home or purchased from street vendors include fried bean cakes, kulikui (deep-fried peanut butter), chinchin, and dodo. Where there is a dip, it is often made from chilies. Children buy and sell small, hard candies on the street. Globalization has meant the availability of sugary soft drinks, which are now increasingly consumed with meals instead of water or juice.
Cooking
Most Nigerian meals are made up of one course consisting of a starch and a soup or thick stew. Frying food in oil as part of the preparation of the stew is very common. Food is cooked on a small portable stove or hearth. The better off may have a gas or electric stove. In modern houses, the kitchen would be part of the house and have similar features to Western kitchens, with a stove, refrigerator, cupboards for storing things, and so forth. In rural areas, however, the kitchen may be separate from the main living area and include an area for the cooking fire with a support for a cooking pot. In these kitchens, where there may be no oven, baking is accomplished by wrapping the food in leaves and cooking it in the hot coals. Indeed, banana leaves serve many functions as a cooking utensil. The leaves are also used as lids for the cooking pot to keep steam in, as well as baking pans. All Nigerian kitchens will also have a mortar and pestle, which may be made of wood or stone, for crushing spices and mashing yams.
In Nigeria cooking is women’s work. It is the wife’s responsibility to teach young girls how to cook. This teaching is done through demonstration, as cookbooks are rare. Women tend to cook from memory, and a good mastery of timing and volumes is considered a valuable skill that relies on the ability to understand how dishes should taste, how much to prepare, and how long it should take. This practice of cooking by memory and intuition also means that each cook imposes her own tastes on the food. Because food is frequently shared, women aim to achieve a reputation as a good cook among family and friends. Indeed, a number of epigrams are directly related to acknowledging the importance of women’s cooking, such as “the way to a man’s heart is through good food.” Polygamy is common and legal for all men in Nigeria, though those who are Christian are less likely to adopt this practice. In a polygamous family, wives take turns feeding the husband, but each wife is primarily responsible for feeding and caring for her own children. Particularly in rural areas, however, families live in extended units, and the wives along with aunts, female cousins, sisters, and so forth will often help each other when needed. Because men and women tend to keep their money separate, in order to support their children, women take on jobs to enable their provisioning such as tending the family garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local market. Young boys and female children help their mothers with these tasks after school.
Typical Meals
Breakfast, eaten at five or six in the morning, may be leftovers from the previous day, rice and mangos, dodo (fried plantains), stewed soybeans, or a porridge made from gari (ground cassava root). In wealthier urban households breakfast may be a cup of tea and toast with butter. Lunch may then be eaten around 11, and in many rural areas it is the main meal. In the evening a lighter meal may be taken. Throughout the day snacks are eaten, and for many children snacks are the only time when they are able to eat food without having to share it with their siblings. While dining tables and cutlery are increasingly present in both rural and urban Nigerian households, this is a relatively recent phenomenon introduced by the wealthy. Traditionally Nigerians would eat with their right hand (use of the left hand is considered unhygienic) sitting around a mat placed in the central living area. This includes soups, which are eaten with a cupped hand. Because many Nigerians think that the eating experience is diminished by the use of utensils, traditional practices are still observed despite the availability of these items. Nigerian households continue to be sharply divided along gender lines. This extends into eating practices, whereby the males would eat first and separately from the women and children. It is the wife’s job to serve her husband his evening meal on a tray. In the poorer families, what is left on the plate is then eaten by the women and children. In wealthier families, where there is more food, women and children may eat at the same time as men, but they are still separate from the men. Very young children will share their mother’s plate, but as they get older they will share a plate with other children of the same sex. When children reach adulthood, in wealthier households they are given their own plate. In households where men eat first, it is considered bad manners for the male householder to eat all the food and leave nothing for the women and children. These gendered eating practices occur throughout Nigeria.
Eating Out
Because of poverty, most Nigerians tend to eat at home rather than eating out at a restaurant. Restaurants tend to be in the cities and are the domain of foreign visitors and the wealthy. There is the possibility of purchasing cooked food from market traders or small eateries (bukas) that serve local foods. Those eating this food are most likely to be men eating while at work during the day, rather than people eating out as a social or family event. Women who work prefer to bring food from home that they have prepared rather than purchase food out, as for many women it is considered disgraceful to have to buy cooked food.
While eating out in the commercial sense is limited, it is not uncommon for Nigerians to eat out at a friend’s or relative’s house. Indeed, there is an expectation that enough food should be made to feed visitors, who may arrive unannounced. Within Nigerian custom, all visitors are to be fed, and the more generous the meal, the greater the affection that is being shown by the host. Guests are not expected to eat all the food they are given; instead, this generosity should be reciprocated by the giving of gifts. If a person is invited to dinner at a Nigerian home, it is appropriate to bring fruit, nuts, or chocolates for the host and a gift for the children.
While it is often common to see Americans and British people eating “on the go,” Nigerians, partly because of the nature of the food but also because of custom, tend to sit and relax while eating. Indeed, it is viewed as bad manners to eat while doing something else, including when eating food purchased from street vendors.
Special Occasions
As with most cultures, food is an important part of all Nigerian celebrations. While some celebrations are directly linked to the Muslim or Christian religions, others are linked to ethnic groups or particular regions, while still other celebrations are more national in their practice. The Christian holidays of Christmas, Good Friday, and Easter, as well as Muslim holidays of Eid al-Fitr, Tabaski, and Eid al Moulid, are all officially recognized. Eid al-Fitr celebrates the last day of Ramadan, which is the month-long observation of fasting (occurring in September). During daylight hours, those who are Muslim must not eat or drink. After dusk, families will buy food from street vendors to break the fast. For those who celebrate Christmas, this often involves traveling to be with relatives. Children will open presents in the afternoon. A typical Christmas feast will include obe didin (roasted goat), jollof rice, yams, liver, and other dishes. Many of the regions have festivals to celebrate the various foodstuff s that are indigenous to that area. Examples include the Rgingu Fishing Festival, which takes place in Arugungo in Kebbi state. Arugungo is a village along the Sokoto River, and the festival marks a visit by a dignitary that occurred in 1934. While the original visit was in August, the festival is celebrated each year in February or March to mark the end of the growing season. Thousands of men enter the river with nets or in boats and for 45 minutes harvest perch and balloon fish. The largest fish that is caught is offered to the organizers of the event. What is caught is then grilled (barbecued) and eaten in a communal feast. Perhaps more widespread are the New Yam Festivals, Iri-ji, celebrated in August, and the Second Yam Festivals, celebrated in November to January. These festivals are primarily celebrated by the Igbo communities. Each community will have its own day, much like European and North American communities that have harvest festivals or country fairs. The day symbolizes the conclusion of a work cycle and the beginning of a season. Only dishes made of newly harvested yam are served on this day. Prior to the festival, any old yams, which may have been stored whole or ground up, are disposed of. Before the celebration, new yams are off ered to the god or yam spirit, Ifejioku, and ancestors first. Then the eldest and highest-ranking male member of the village will have the first taste of the new yam crop, as this position carries with it the privilege of being an intermediary between the gods and the community. Finally, the community and anyone who is visiting, not just those who grow and harvest the yams, will be invited to eat the new yam dishes, which are different from those that use old yams. The ritual of the new yam is meant to express thanks for the harvest to the gods. Yams are also considered a male crop signifying sustenance, strength, and endurance. Similar to the New Yam Festival is the Benin Festival, which is held at the end of the rainy season after the harvests have been gathered. Unlike the other festivals, this festival is also intended to introduce marriageable (as defi ned in terms of wealth) girls to boys. While not all youth of marriageable age may participate in the festival matching, all of the villagers will participate in the feast. In some places the festival is held only every four years. At the family level, most Nigerians will celebrate marriage, naming, and death with food. Kola nuts are used in wedding ceremonies to bless the marriage, and guests are invited to taste the symbolic foods used in the ceremony as well as to join in a meal afterward. Eight days after a child is born there is often a naming ceremony, when the child is given its names by its parents. After the ceremony there is a celebratory meal. Likewise, those who attend a funeral will also be invited to share a meal with the family afterward. Meat dishes will often be served at these events, even by poor families. In fact, celebrations may be the only times when less-well-off households eat meat. The purchase of a whole steer is not uncommon for such occasions, but unlike many westerners, Nigerians will use the whole animal, including the organs, feet, and head. What is not edible will be used in other ways.
Diet and Health
Given the relative productivity of the land and the possibility of growing a large variety of fruits and vegetables, the country offers the potential for providing access to a good, well-rounded diet. Indeed, recent estimates suggest that the average Nigerian’s daily calorie supply is around 2,700. However, the extreme poverty of so many can be linked to health inequalities that are directly related to or are impacted on by diet. Of children under the age of five, about 39 percent are underweight, and over 39 percent are stunted (short for their age). Just over one quarter of all children under five (27%) are estimated to be malnourished.
Many in Nigeria also suffer from vitamin A deficiencies, which can result in blindness; these deficiencies result from inadequate access to greens, orange fruits and vegetables, and protein. As is the case with food supplies, access to clean drinking water is also divided by class. Just 51 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water, while the remainder are susceptible to waterborne diseases such as bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever. Nigeria is also in a malarial zone. These diseases can also contribute to vitamin A deficiency. Finally, while malnutrition and water-related illness certainly contribute to the short life expectancy, AIDS also takes its toll. Today, the estimated life expectancy of Nigerian men and women is 47 years. Nearly three million adults in Nigeria are living with AIDS or HIV. Antiretrovirals, which are used to treat AIDS, are costly and require doctor support; also, the person must take the drugs with food and must take them several times a day. Access to food and water plays an intrinsic role in the life chances of Nigerians today, because without access the cycle of poverty is further exacerbated. Intergenerational transfer of illnesses such as AIDS and illnesses related to vitamin and mineral deficiencies such as goiter, night blindness, and rickets are also linked to poverty. The estimated infant mortality rate was over 7 percent, or about 74 infant deaths for every 1,000 live births. Importantly, newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride. They represent a community’s and a family’s future and often are the main reason for many marriages (a large proportion of Nigerian households are characterized by polygamy). Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong. During the fi rst few years of a child’s life, the mother is never far away, and Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the bond that it creates between mother and child. Children are often not weaned off their mother’s milk until they are toddlers. If a mother is infected with AIDS or HIV or is vitamin deficient herself, then her milk will not be sufficient to adequately feed her child. Both Western and traditional forms of medicine are available in Nigeria. The health care system is sponsored by the government; however, because corruption is high and there is a shortage of trained health care professionals, ordinary Nigerians’ access to health care is limited. Traditional medicine, also known as juju, is commonly practiced and involves the use of a variety of plants and herbs in the cures. Most families also have their own secret remedies for minor health problems. Juju can also involve adhering to food taboos; for example, when suffering from breathing difficulties one should avoid hot food, kola nuts, and coconuts. Likewise, “slimy” food (e.g., okra soup) should be avoided when recovering from a wound because it is thought that the wound needs to dry out to heal and the texture of the foods will slow this process down. Some traditional remedies involve avoiding foods that, while not related to the characteristics of the malady, when eaten are thought to anger the gods. For example, smallpox is thought to worsen if chicken and grains are consumed because for some these foods are forbidden and the gods will not heal the patient if they are eaten. Finally, the character of the overall diet is also linked to understandings that combine taste with health benefits. Pepper, for instance, is not just used to improve the flavor of the dish but also because it is thought to act as a natural preservative and antibacterial agent and also to reduce the body temperature of the eater, which is important in a hot climate.
By Megan K. Blake in the book 'Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia'- Ken Albala, editor.Greenwood- (An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC) Santa Barbara, California U.S.A, 2011, 1st. volume, p.141-149. Edited and adapted to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.
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