WHAT IS MEAT?

Research tells us that the relatives of Homo sapiens scavenged for animal proteins millions of years ago. Earlier hominids hunted eggs and possibly small animals, but were primarily vegetarians. As humans evolved, their ability to hunt with skill allowed them to kill larger animals for meat, tools, and clothing. Techniques for fabricating and preserving meat improved along with hunting skills. As civilizations evolved, so did the artisans of those civilizations. Humans during the late Paleolithic period, around 10,000 to 25,000 years ago, hunted a wide variety of large animals. They had considerable knowledge ofall the animals’ parts and had a use for many byproducts, such as bones, sinews, hides, and more. Rendering fat for fuel was common and allowed for survival during cold periods and ice ages. Cave drawings found from this period show a variety of large mammals, such as bison, ibex, reindeer, aurochs (early ancestors of oxen), and mammoths.

THE BUTCHER

A transition to agriculture occurred around 10,000 years ago. With the advent of agriculture, animals were domesticated rather than hunted and the role of the butcher became necessary to properly fabricate animals into meat that society could use. The craftsman class in early human societies included those who knew the skills to harvest meat from animals. Civilizations grew from small villages and camps to larger centers and cities. Each area developed its own food culture and ways in which it cut and used meats. During the medieval period in Europe, guild systems regulated trade and guaranteed that skills were effectively passed on through generations. The butcher would start as an apprentice at around ten or twelve years of age and, after a few years, became a journeyman. Then, if his or her skill level showed a complete understanding of the craft, a butcher would become a “master.” The masters held great political power in a village or city-state and would help regulate trade with the local farmers.
For many years, meat fabrication was done by hand. The advent of higherquality metals, knives, and tools allowed the butcher to improve his craft. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-nineteenth century, meat processing changed. Rather than a small local butcher working with the farmer on a oneto-one basis, modern transportation allowed for meat carcasses to be transported over great distances. By the 1900s, trainloads of animals could be brought to larger packing houses of inner cities. Butchers no longer had to do the entire harvest from slaughter to final product. Assembly-line type fabrication took hold.
Also at this time, farming technologies changed. Farmers could produce more plant food, not only for human consumption, but also for their farm animals. This feeding of animals led to higher-quality products. The use of tractors and farm machinery meant that large animals were no longer needed to pull plows, clear land, or perform any other arduous task they were previously bred for. Now, breeders could concentrate on meat production. Universities developed animal science programs devoted to the “meat breed,” whether it was beef, pork, chicken, or lamb. The growth of the meat industry changed the way meat was fabricated. No longer did a single butcher need to know the entire process of taking the animal from the farmer to the portioned cuts for customers. The practice of having many butchers, each with a specialized skill set, increased the volume of what could be done.
Today, modern meat-processing plants fabricate cuts in a huge variety of sizes, quality ranges, trim levels, and styles. This book will help the reader understand the options available to buyers. Having good fabrication skills enables the meat buyer to fully understand the most profitable way to buy. Though it is true that it takes years of butchering experience to become a true master, and that a book cannot possibly teach all the skills necessary, it is also true that having a basic understanding of meat cuts and the options available can directly affect the way you buy.

WHAT IS MEAT?

A basic definition of meat is “the parts of animals fit for human consumption,” This broad definition refers to both the edible carcass and offal. The definition of meat varies from species to species. For example, the hide is removed from beef, veal, and lamb, but for pork and poultry, it is considered part of the meat. The carcass includes the following components: lean muscle tissues, bones, fats, connective tissues, and offal. Offal is not actually part of the carcass, it is the edible byproducts produced in creating the carcass.
Most people consider meat as the steak, roast, or chop, but when considering the whole carcass, we need to consider anatomy. When alive, animals use their muscles to do specific tasks. Certain muscles are used for locomotion and movement. Cattle spend a good portion of their time standing, so they develop thick support muscles. When considering which meat to use for cooking, we must consider the use of the muscle while the animal was alive. Muscle sections that are used more frequently or perform arduous tasks will be tougher than more sedentary muscle groups.
Muscles that are located along the back are used less frequently than muscles that are at the extremities. Certain deep muscles, when isolated and trimmed, have been found to be extremely tender. These muscles may be too small or difficult to fabricate, so may not be considered marketable. The age and method of raising the animal also determine a level of tenderness. What may be considered a quality cut in one species can be quite tough in another.

MUSCLE FIBERS

There are two basic types of muscle fibers: smooth and skeletal. Smooth muscles are found in the digestive and circulatory systems and are primarily involuntary muscles. These are generally found in offal products, such as tripe. Skeletal muscles are the more typical meat muscles. They attach to bone to allow the animal to move and perform specific tasks. Skeletal muscles are formed from long, slender muscle cells that form bundles. Muscle bundles are tied together with springlike myofibrils, which are able to expand and contract in movement. A collagen-protein layer, called perimysium, surrounds these bundles. Acting like a layer of plastic wrap, the perimysium surrounds the bundles. The thicker the perimysium is, the tougher the muscle. The entire larger muscle is enclosed with a layer called the epimysium.
Layers become thicker and tougher as the animal matures. Muscle fibers are aligned in a directional pattern called the grain. When cutting meats, it is important to understand the direction of the grain so as to cut across it to ensure the most tender surface possible. Certain cuts that have an obvious grain can be extremely tough if the cut is made with the grain, as opposed to across it.
The color of muscle fibers depends on the type of muscle and its species. Muscles that receive their energy directly from the bloodstream will be redder in color. The red pigment is due to myoglobin, a protein that holds oxygen to the muscle. Beef, lamb, and venison all have a darker red meat due to the large amount of myoglobin present. Pork, veal, and various types of poultry are a light color because much of the energy for their muscles is achieved anaerobically.
Myoglobin will give meats different color hues depending on length of exposure to oxygen. When meat cuts are in an anaerobic state, such as in a vacuum bag, the myoglobin is a dull purplish red. Once cuts are exposed to oxygen, they “bloom” and become a bright red. This is termed oxymyoglobin. After being exposed to oxygen for some time, the oxymyoglobin converts to metmyoglobin and turns a brown or gray color. This is usually an indication that the meat is spoiling.

FATS

Different species have different types of lipid combinations. The fat from a hog is chemically different from that of beef, as is that of lamb. The taste and melting points of different fats can reflect different uses in the kitchen. Pork fat is considered more palatable than beef or lamb fat. Lamb fat is very strong in fl avor and has a different mouth feel. This is due to the levels of saturated fats, such as stearic or palmitic fatty acids. The diet of the animal will also affect the flavor of the fat and therefore the taste of the overall meat. Grass-fed or foraged animals will tend to have a stronger or more pronounced flavor than grain-fed animals.
Diet also alters the levels of Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids. For example, grass-fed animals will have a higher Omega-3 count. Grain fed animals have an imbalance of Omega 6 to Omega 3 ratio, with Omega 6 being higher. It is important to have a balance of Omega 3 and 6 in the diet. There are four basic categories used when discussing fat on meat carcasses.
1. Subcutaneous Fat: Fat found directly under the hide or skin of the animal. It is very dense and good for barding or larding. Pork fatback is an example of subcutaneous fat.
2. Lumbar or Kidney Fat: Fat found inside the carcass cavity surrounding the kidney and pelvic region. This fat is very hard and crumbly with little moisture, which makes it very good for rendering and frying.
3. Intermuscular Fat: Fat that is found between muscle groups. It is used to help guide the butcher between muscle cuts.
4. Intramuscular Fat: This is also known as marbling. Marbling is fat found within the lean muscle tissues, between muscle bundles. When well-marbled meat is cooked, the fat melts, infusing the cut with flavor and leaving a weakened muscle fiber, which translates into tenderness. Marbling is considered a main indicator of quality.

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

The most common connective protein in meat is collagen. Collagen is the basic filament that holds together muscle fibers. It is found throughout the carcass and attaches muscle to muscle. Collagen fibers can be described as white, silver, or clear, depending on their thickness or density. Large collagen tendons appear as white, thin bands on muscles or appear silver between muscles; the perimysium covering surrounding tiny muscle bundles is practically clear.
Collagen directly relates to the toughness of a cut of meat. Muscles that are load bearing or are required to do heavy lifting have thicker collagen bands and coarse muscle fibers. If applying a rapid, dry cooking method to these types of motion muscles, the meat will be very tough. A piece of meat from a less-active area will have a much finer fiber and less collagen support material, and will be tender. Collagen breaks down during a slow, moist cooking application. The fibers unravel and fall apart, dissolving into the liquid. Tougher muscles will become extremely tender if allowed the proper time and heat to do so. Collagen-laden muscles tend to have much more flavor than fine-fibered, tender cuts. When broken down in the sauce of a dish, collagen gives a texture or smoothness to that sauce. In culinary terms, this texture is part of what might be called savory, or umami, even though other factors also contribute to this.
Another connective tissue frequently found on meat cuts is the material that connects muscle to bone. This substance, known as periosteum, or bone sheath, is actually part of the bone covering that is pulled away when meat is boned out. On younger animal carcasses, which is the case for most of the meat items we see today, the bones are not ossified or fully hardened. This sheath ends up on the meat item. It can be very tough and does not break down as readily as collagen does. It should be removed, even on moist-cooked meats, unless the meat is cooked for an extremely long time. Bone connectives look similar to collagen but are pinkish in color and can be rough to the touch. Elastin, another common connective tissue, is found along the back and into the neck of the carcass. It is yellowish and has an elastic feel. It is thick and tough, but is found close to some prized sedentary muscle cuts, so it is necessary to remove it as well.

BONES

Although we do not actually eat the hardened bones of animals, they are an integral part of what is considered meat. Bones end up on the plate as part of a large variety of cuts. The bone-in steak or chop, the barbecued or roasted chicken, spare ribs, and the classic crown roast would not be possible without leaving the bones attached. Bones hold many connective tissues, which dissolve into water when producing stock. These stocks or broths can be reduced to make rich, smooth sauces. The fatty rich marrow found in certain bones is used in some classic dishes.
In the fabrication of meat, bones play an important role for the butcher. Bones are used to identify specific locations on the carcass to make a cut without damaging muscles. Bones act as a roadmap for carcass breakdown. Every typical four-legged mammal used for meat has the same basic bone and muscle structure. Of course, they are not all divided the same, but there are always certain similarities. When deciding to fabricate a cut of meat, whether a full carcass or an individual cut, it is important to understand the bone structure.

OFFAL

Offal can best be described as the edible byproducts of a meat carcass. Examples would be organ meats such as liver, kidney, heart, brain, tripe, certain glands, and intestinal tracts. In addition, the cheeks, tail, and tongue are part of offal. In many cultures, offal is considered a delicacy. Organ meats, such as the liver and kidneys, are high in iron, which translates into a rich flavor. The tail has some meat and a lot of collagen and is typically used for rich braises. Offal is generally inexpensive but requires some skill to cook properly.
Organ meats are composed of fibers that are different from those of lean muscle. Membranes, blood vessels, and connectives need to be removed on livers and kidneys.
Some offal is considered the epitome of high cuisine. An example would be the fattened duck or goose liver known as foie gras. This meat has a consistency that resembles butter and has a rich flavor. Other delicacies would be the sweetbread, or thymus gland, of veal. When properly prepared, this soft-structured gland can be eaten with a fork. This type of offal is an exception to the “inexpensive” nature of offal. They are in high demand and warrant a high cost.
Organ meats tend to be highly perishable and therefore must be used fresh, within a week of slaughter, or purchased frozen. Be sure to keep frozen items below 328 and 248F/08 and 2188C to ensure the formation of small ice crystals and minimize damage.

QUALITY GRADING

The idea of grading meat for its palatability, or tenderness and taste, has been going on for hundreds of years. Cattle buyers and butchers judged animals for their quality and paid accordingly. The size and age of the animals were assessed and breeds were looked at to determine quality. The breeding of animals for meat quality encouraged importation of animals that improved the quality of the herds.
The United States Department of Agriculture [USDA] began grading beef for quality in 1927. This created standards that established criteria that farmers and processors could try to achieve. Grading for other species followed and modifications to the grading system have been implemented over the decades. The grades helped processors assign value to the meats and allowed the purchaser consistency in product. No longer was an expert butcher required to select meats; a purchaser could simply request a grade and receive a consistent product.
The process of USDA-quality grading is separate from inspection. Grading is not a mandatory function. Unlike inspection, which is paid for by taxpayers, the processor pays for quality grading. What this implies is that, normally, only the higher-grade meats sold for a premium will be quality graded, while lesser meats—meats usually used for processed items—will go ungraded. Many processors have in-house graders and quality assessment teams that perform tasks similar to the USDA, but only the USDA graders can use their specific USDA stamps. Specific grading criteria for beef, veal, and pork are included in this book in the chapter for that meat.

YIELD GRADING

When an animal is slaughtered, a certain amount of the animal is not usable as meat. For example, for beef, 53 to 58 percent is dressed carcass, 14 to 20 percent is edible offal, and 36 to 33 percent is inedible. These amounts may vary on the type of animal and pre slaughter conditions, but the fact remains that there is a substantial loss during slaughter and evisceration. On the dressed carcass, there may be substantial further loss due to fat content. A fed, or fattened, beef animal accumulates extra fat, which reduces the overall yield of the carcass.
The USDA has established a yield-grading system that defines criteria for carcasses. This system defines the cutability, the amount of usable meat, in a carcass. It takes into account fat-to-lean ratios and meat-to-bone, or conformation, ratios. The weight and size of the carcass is assessed and a number grade is assigned. Beef and lamb are primarily the only meats that are yield graded. Veal does not have enough fat to degrade its value and pork has a grade system that incorporates yield with its quality grade.

By Thomas Schneller in the book 'Meat-Identification, Fabrication, Utilization', Delmar-Cengage Learning, New York, 2009, p.3-9. Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.