THE BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURE

:Çatal Hüyük

For thousands upon thousands of years, humans survived by hunting game and gathering edible plants. They lived in bands of 25 to 70 people. The men almost certainly did the hunting. The women gathered fruits, berries, roots, and grasses. Then about 10,000 years ago, some of the women may have scattered seeds near a regular campsite. When they returned the next season, they may have found new crops growing. This discovery would usher in the Neolithic Revolution, or the agricultural revolution — the far-reaching changes in human life resulting from the beginnings of farming. The shift from food-gathering to food-producing culture represents one of the great breakthroughs in history.

Causes of the Agricultural Revolution 

Scientists do not know exactly why the agricultural revolution occurred during this period. Change in climate was probably a key reason. Rising temperatures worldwide provided longer growing seasons and drier land for cultivating wild grasses. A rich supply of grain helped support a small population boom. As populations slowly rose, hunter-gatherers felt pressure to find new food sources. Farming offered an attractive alternative. Unlike hunting, it provided a steady source of food.

Early Farming Methods

Some groups practiced slash-and-burn farming, in which they cut trees or grasses and burned them to clear a field. The ashes that remained fertilized the soil. Farmers planted crops for a year or two, then moved to another area of land. After several years, trees and grass grew back, and other farmers repeated the process of slashing and burning.

Domestication of Animals

Food gatherers’ understanding of plants probably spurred the development of farming. Meanwhile, hunters’ expert knowledge of wild animals likely played a key role in the domestication, or taming, of animals. They tamed horses, dogs, goats, and pigs. Like farming, domestication of animals came slowly. Stone Age hunters may have driven herds of animals into rocky ravines to be slaughtered. It was then a small step to drive herds into human-made enclosures. From there, farmers could keep the animals as a constant source of food and gradually tame them. Not only farmers domesticated animals. Pastoral nomads, or wandering herders, tended sheep, goats, camels, or other animals. These herders moved their animals to new pastures and watering places.

Agriculture in Jarmo 

Jarmo

Today, the eroded and barren rolling foothills of the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq seem an unlikely site for the birthplace of agriculture. According to archaeologist Robert Braidwood, thousands of years ago the   environmental conditions of this region favored the development of agriculture. Wild wheat and barley, along with wild goats, pigs, sheep, and horses, had once thrived near the Zagros Mountains. In the 1950s, Braidwood led an archaeological dig at a site called Jarmo. He concluded that an agricultural settlement was built there about 9,000 years ago: The Jarmo farmers, and others like them in places as far apart as Mexico and Thailand, pioneered a new way of life. Villages such as Jarmo marked the beginning of a new era and laid the foundation for modern life.

Villages Grow and Prosper

The changeover from hunting and gathering to farming and herding took place not once but many times. Neolithic people in many parts of the world independently developed agriculture, as the map at the right shows.

Farming Develops in Many Places

Within a few thousand years, people in many other regions, especially in fertile river valleys, turned to farming.
• Africa The Nile River Valley developed into an important agricultural center for growing wheat, barley, and other crops.
• China About 8,000 years ago, farmers along the middle stretches of the Huang He (Yellow River) cultivated a grain called millet. About 1,000 years later, farmers first domesticated wild rice in the Chang Jiang River delta.
• Mexico and Central America Farmers cultivated corn, beans, and squash.
• Peru Farmers in the Central Andes were the first to grow tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and white potatoes.
From these early and varied centers of agriculture, farming then spread to surrounding regions.

Çatal Huyuk 

In 1958, archaeologists discovered the agricultural village now known as Çatal Huyuk, or the “forked mound.” It was located on a fertile plain in south-central Turkey (about 30 miles from modern-day Konya), near a twin-coned volcano. Çatal Huyuk covered an area of about 32 acres. At its peak 8,000 years ago, the village was home to 5,000 to 6,000 people who lived in about 1,000 dwellings. These rectangular-shaped houses were made of brick and were arranged side-by-side like a honeycomb. Çatal Huyuk showed the benefits of settled life. Its rich, well-watered soil produced large crops of wheat, barley, and peas. Villagers also raised sheep and cattle. Çatal Huyuk’s agricultural surpluses supported a number of highly skilled workers, such as potters and weavers. But the village was best known at the time for its obsidian products. This dark volcanic rock, which looks like glass, was plentiful. It was used to make mirrors, jewelry, and knives for trade. Çatal Huyuk’s prosperity also supported a varied cultural life. Archaeologists have uncovered colorful wall paintings depicting animals and hunting scenes. Many religious shrines were dedicated to a mother goddess. According to her worshipers, she controlled the supply of grain. The new settled way of life also had its drawbacks — some of the same that affected hunter-gatherer settlements. Floods, fire, drought, and other natural disasters could destroy a village. Diseases, such as malaria, spread easily among people living closely together. Jealous neighbors and roving nomadic bands might attack and loot a wealthy village like Çatal Huyuk. Despite problems, these permanent settlements provided their residents with opportunities for fulfillment—in work, in art, and in leisure time.

In "World History - Patterns of Interaction", consultants: Roger B. Beck, Linda Black, Larry s. Kriger, Phillip C. Naylor and Dahia Ibo Shabaka, McDougal Littell,USA, 2009, excerps chapter 1 p.15-18. Adapted and illustratedd to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.