MONTANISM

Ecstatic prophetic movement in the Christianity of Asia Minor, dating primarily to the late second and early third centuries. Known as "the Phrygian heresy" (after its place of origin and greatest support) in early Christian sources until the fourth century, Montanism was subsequently named after its founder and first prophet, Montanus (ca. 170). Montanist prophets claimed direct ecstatic revelations from God to support their teachings on disciplinary questions, especially extended hours of fasting and asceticism, and on eschatology. Montanists differed from Catholics in their insistence that a true prophet spoke in unconscious ecstasy and in their emphasis upon greater disciplinary rigor. Charges that they were doctrinal heretics are unfounded.

Sources on the date of the outbreak of the Montanist controversy are confused, but a date ca. 170 is to be preferred. A "newly baptized" Christian named Montanus began ecstatic prophesying in the Spirit (Eusebius, HE. 5.16.7) in the village of Ardabav in southern Phrygia. He was joined shortly thereafter by two prophetesses, Maximilla (5.16.13) and Priscilla. Christianity in Asia Minor had long treasured the Gospel of John, with its promise of the Paraclete, and was the setting for the eschatological prophecy of the Book of Revelation. Philip's daughters had resided in Asia Minor and were held to be prophetesses (Eusebius, HE. 5.17.3). Such circles seem the best explanation for the backgrounds of the movement, rather than pagan ecstatic religion or Judaism.

Both the anonymous source quoted by Eusebius (HE. 5.17.1-14) and a Catholic redaction of an early Montanist source preserved by Epiphanius (Haer. 48) make it clear that the theological aspect of the controversy turned on the point of whether a true prophet spoke in ecstasy without the cooperation, and hence potential corruption, of the prophet's rational mind (the Montanist position) or whether the true prophet spoke in possession of his or her sense, that is, nonecstatically (the Catholic position).

The source preserved by Epiphanius shows some of the scriptural examples put forward by the Montanists to prove their point. Among other texts, the Montanists used Genesis 2:21 (Adam's ecstatic sleep) to show a scriptural prophecy (cf Eph. 5:31-32) delivered in ecstasy (Haer. 48.5-6). The Montanist prophets also seem to have practiced "charismatic exegesis," in which the text of scripture was actually cited in their oracles in such a way as to include their eschatological key to the scriptures within the text. For example, an oracle of "self-commendation" (Aune's term) of Mont anus quotes the Septuagint text of Isaiah 63:9: "Neither a messenger nor an ambassador [presbys] but I the Lord God Father came." The Montanist oracles that have been preserved are excerpted from their originalliterary settings and so are difficult to interpret correctly. A handful of authentic Montanist inscriptions have been identified.

One authentic late Montanist inscription substantiates Epiphanius's charge (Haer. 49) that the Montanists allowed female clergy.

The literary warfare that followed the outbreak of the controversy culminated in a series of synods of churches in Asia Minor, the first such regional synods in Christian history, in which the Montanists were excommunicated (Eusebius, HE. 5.16.1O). The controversy spread by 177 to Rome, where the Montanists were excommunicated by bishop Eleutherus.

Montanists may have developed their own peculiar form of regional bishops (koinonoi) to ensure the institutional continuity of the sect. Inscriptional evidence now indicates their geographical center was located in southern Phrygia, with no representatives in the upper Tembris Valley in the north.

Just after 208, Montanism gained its most famous convert, Tertullian of Carthage. His later treatises, beginning with Book 4 of Against Marcion, include Montanist passages and show that Tertullian had access to the same early Montanist source preserved in Epiphanius. North American Montanism in Tertullian's day continued to emphasize long fasts, prohibited second marriages and flight to avoid martyrdom (Tertullian, Fug.), and specified the exact length of veils to be worn by women. The Montanist prophets also announced an eschatological vision of the heavenly Jerusalem, seen suspended over geographical Jerusalem (Tertullian, Marc. 3.24.4). Spiritual psalms, visions, and prayers (Marc. 5.8.12) also played a part in community life.

Recent research on North American oracles indicates there may have been two differing thought-circles, one organized around ecclesiastical oracles and the other emphasizing visions.

Almost nothing is known about post third-century Montanism from literary sources. A Montanist martyr appears in Eusebius of Caesarea's Martyrs of Palestine 3.1 in the persecutions of 303-311. Montanism continued to be mentioned in writers through the seventh century and later, but these references tend to be secondary notices about the origins of the movement. However, the newly available epigraphic corpus of Montanism supplies dating, provenance, and demographic information on the Montanists into the sixth century.

By Dennis E. Groh in "Encyclopedia of Early Christianity", second edition, Editor Everett Ferguson, Routledge, New York & London,1999, excerpts pp.813-815.Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.