DEATH IN ANCIENT EGYPT

It was home to a thriving civilisation, but it was in the land beyond the grave that the Egyptians believed they truly came to life.

Beneath the burning hot sands of the Eastern Desert lie the remains of one of the greatest civilisations the world has ever seen. The Ancient Egyptians flourished along the banks of the River Nile between the third and first millennia BCE, with an empire that stretched as far north as modern-day Syria and as far south as Nubia in northern Sudan.

These people led rich lives. The fertile soil gave rise to a thriving agricultural society that developed some of the most advanced farming techniques of the ancient world. Their building projects were unparalleled, and they forever altered the Egyptian skyline with their towering temples and imposing pyramids. Their armies were undefeated, their science was revolutionary, and their art provided a blueprint for the Renaissance masters.

But it was in death that the Egyptians believed they truly lived. Their faith in the afterlife was unshakeable, but entry was not guaranteed. The spirit of the dead would first have to navigate through a perilous underworld, battling gods, monsters and gatekeepers until it reached the Hall of Judgement. Here, it would be brought before 42 divine judges, to whom it would have to prove its worthiness for the afterlife. If successful, the spirit could then proceed to the Weighing of the Heart ceremony. Its heart, which contained a record of all its good and bad deeds, was weighed against the feather of the goddess Ma’at. If the heart was heavier, it was thrown to the crocodile-headed demoness Ammut and the soul was castinto the darkness. If the scales balanced, the soul could pass on to the Field of Rushes – a heavenly reflection of life on Earth.

With so much to compete with in death, the Ancient Egyptians spent their lives preparing for it. As well as trying to avoid sin, funerary items were purchased, coffins were commissioned and tombs were built, many of which were more elaborate than their own homes. But the preparation of the body after death itself may be at the centre of our enduring fascination with death in Ancient Egypt.

Mummification

The gory embalmment process was perfected until it was able to produce mummies that would last for eternity.

Eternal life wasn’t just about preserving the spirit. The deceased’s body also had to preserved, as the Ancient Egyptians believed the soul (ba) and life force (ka) had to return to it regularly to survive. To prevent the body decaying, it underwent a lengthy and gruesome mummification process. Developed and refined over millennia, it allowed Ancient Egypt to produce some of the best-preserved mummies in the world, and we can now gaze upon the faces of men, women and children almost exactly as they were more than 2,000 years ago.

The first mummies in Egypt date back to approximately 3500 BCE. Before that time, all citizens regardless of social status were buried in desert graves, which allowed natural preservation to occur through dehydration. An artificial method known as embalmment was then developed that would ensure even better preservation and allow bodies to be kept within tombs. The most complicated mummification process was developed in about 1550 BCE, and is considered the best method of preservation. With this method, the internal organs were removed, the flesh dehydrated, and then the body was wrapped in linen strips. This was an expensive process that took about 70 days to complete, so only the very rich could afford it. Working class people were treated with an alternative method of preservation that involved liquidising the internal organs with cedar tree oil, draining them out through the rectum and then placing the body in a salty substance called natron to dehydrate it.

Embalming took place in the Red Land, a desert region away from the heavily populated areas and with easy access to the Nile. Upon death, the body would be carried to the Ibu, or the ‘Place of Purification’, where it would be washed in river water. It was then taken to the per-nefer, or ‘house of mummification’, which was an open tent to allow for ventilation. Here it was laid out on a table ready to be dissected by the embalmers. These men were skilled artisans who had a deep knowledge of anatomy and a steady hand. They were also often priests, as performing religious rites over the deceased was an equally important part of the embalming process. The most experienced priest carried out the major parts of mummification, like the wrapping of the body, and wore a jackal mask as he did so. This symbolised the presence of Anubis, god of embalming and the afterlife.

The Many Layers of a Mummy

Mummification was not the final step in the quest for eternal life. The body would be placed in several cases and coffins – sometimes up to eight – before eventually being laid to rest.

01. Objects for the afterlife

Once the body had been wrapped in layers of linen, items like jewellery and daggers were placed on the mummy for use in the afterlife. A scarab amulet was hung from the neck to help guide the soul during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony.

02. Cartonnage case

After mummification, a cartonnage case was created. This was formed around a straw and mud core to which plaster and linen bandages soaked in resin or animal glue was applied, similar to papier mâché. Once it set, the case was split open, the stuffing removed and the body placed inside.

03. Decoration

Another cartonnage case was added and then a layer of plaster or gesso – made from resin and chalk powder – was painted over the top. Natural dyes like indigo, madder and ochre were used to create intricate designs on the cartonnage, particularly depictions of the god of the underworld, Osiris.

04. Wooden coffin

Finally, the body was placed in an anthropoid wooden coffin. Those of royalty may have been painted with gold leaf and decorated with precious jewels. A death mask made of cartonnage, wood or precious metals was placed on the head of the deceased to ensure that its soul could recognise its body.

Burial 

The Ancient Egyptians’ resting place could be nothing short of what they experienced in life.

Long before their deaths, wealthy Egyptians built luxurious tombs for themselves and filled them with objects that would protect and assist them in the afterlife. This ranged from simple items like bowls, combs and clothing to chariots, furniture, weapons and jewellery. The treasures found in Ancient Egyptian tombs are among some of the most valuable in the world, and show that status symbols were considered just as important for the afterlife as they had been on Earth. Food was also stored in the tomb and left as offerings after the tomb had been sealed in order to sustain the life force (ka) – one of the five elements that made up the human soul. Even depictions of food painted onto the walls of the tomb were believed to provide nourishment for the dead.

The day of burial was when the deceased moved from the world of the living to the world of the dead. Both poor and rich were given a ceremony of some kind, as it was considered essential in order for the spirit to pass to the afterlife. Wealthy and royal Egyptians received an elaborate funeral, during which a procession of mourners and dancers accompanied the coffin to a tomb, which was either below ground or within a mastaba or pyramid. Also present were two women called kites whose job was to mourn overtly and inspire others to do the same. As in other ancient cultures, remembrance of the dead ensured their survival in the afterlife, and a great showing of grief at a funeral was thought to help the deceased’s cause in the Hall of Judgement.

On arrival at the burial site, a priest performed a ritual known as the Opening of the Mouth ceremony. The mummy was propped upright while spells were uttered and a ceremonial blade pressed against the mouth (to allow it to breathe, eat and drink), eyes (to allow it to see) and limbs (to allow it to move). Food and gifts that would assist the spirit in the afterlife were then offered and a funerary banquet was held. Finally, the coffin was carried into the tomb, where royal mummies would be placed within a stone sarcophagus. This was intended to provide an extra layer of protection against grave robbers, who were rife in the Nile valley. Spells and prayers were recited, and then the tomb sealed, never to be opened again… or so they hoped.

Animal Mummies

The Ancient Egyptians believed that many of their gods and goddesses could live on Earth in animal form. The god Amun could take the form of a goose or ram, the god Thoth could be an ibis or baboon, and the goddess Bastet took the form of a cat. These animals were treated like deities, and when they died, they were mummified just like humans. In the Late Period (661-332 BCE), animal mummies were produced commercially and sold for use as of erings. X-rays reveal that the animals were clearly bred for the purpose and some were deliberately killed. Many of the mummies that survive today contain only tiny fragments of bone, or are entirely empty, suggesting that demand for these sacred items must have outstripped supply.

Shabti

These figurines were buried alongside the dead, and were believed to act as servants in the afterlife. They could be made of wood, clay or stone and were often quite small, although earlier life-sized models have been found. Many of them are depicted carrying hoes and baskets, as Ancient Egyptians believed that in the afterlife they would be allocated a plot of land that they would have to farm and maintain. Over 1,000 of them were found in pharaoh Taharqa’s tomb alone, making them one of Ancient Egypt’s most common artifacts.

In "All About History Annual", UK, vol.3, 2016, excerpts pp. 101-105. Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.