SLAVIC MYTHS AND LEGENDS

Firebird

SLAVIC LEGENDS OF THE WITCH

The folklore of the Slavs often reflects their ancestors’ anxieties about evil, the unknown, and the dangers of the forest. There are many tales of witches, who were believed to be sinister women living in these forests, and who preyed on innocent people, or upset family relationships or the social order.

Foremost among such evil characters is Bába Yagá, a witch who appears in Russian legends, and in similar tales found across Central Europe, where her name varies slightly. However, her rapacious appetite for the flesh of young children stays consistent, though many of her victims manage to outwit her.

BÁBA YAGÁ

The witch called Bába Yagá was depicted in stories as a wrinkled old woman sitting quietly on a wooden bench or keeping warm by her stove. When travelling, she would step into a large mortar and push herself through the sky with a pestle, starting violent storms as she flew. She specially looked out for young children, whom she liked to capture and eat. Some people believed that the witch could turn people to stone with her gaze, turning them back into flesh at her home to feed on them. Bába Yagá used the bones left over after her feedings to build a gruesome and enchanted house for herself, which terrified people for miles around. Even its fence was decorated with the skulls of the children she had killed, and she would light these skulls up like lanterns.

VASSILISA

Vassilisa was a young girl who lived with her elderly parents in a village. Her mother fell ill and, before dying, gave Vassilisa a magic doll, which would advise her if she ofered it good food to eat. Vassilisa’s father remarried, but her stepmother and stepsisters did not like Vassilisa and made her do all the hard work at home. One day, when a taper was needed to light the lamps in the house, Vassilisa’s stepmother sent her to get some from Bába Yagá, who, instead of giving her some, set the girl some impossible tasks, such as picking out only peas from a mixture of peas and poppy seeds. Vassilisa was able to successfully complete all the tasks with the help of her doll, but Bába Yagá kept devising more for her to do. Seeing no other way of escape, Vassilisa stole away from the house at night while the witch slept, taking with her one of the glowing skulls from Bába Yagá’s fence.

MARIASSA

There was once a young girl called Mariassa, whose stepmother sent her to Bába Yagá to borrow a needle and thread. Luckily, the girl initially called on her aunt, who told Mariassa how to avoid the jaws of Bába Yagá’s dog and how to talk to her cat. Mariassa asked the cat for a way out when the witch tried to imprison the girl, and it told her to run away with a towel and a comb. Mariassa escaped, and when she heard the witch approaching, she threw down the towel, which turned into a river, and the comb, which became a forest, thus trapping Bába Yagá.

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Bába Yagá

The wicked old witch would use her mortar and pestle to travel in the forest, where she would hide among the trees, waiting to ambush unwary victims that walked past her.

Horror house

Bába Yagá’s house had a pair of hen legs at its base with which it could run around and chase people at the witch’s command.

Roses for wishes

Some legends of Bába Yagá say that the witch could grant people their wishes if she were offered roses, although most stories warn that it was still risky to trust the witch.

The powerless crow

Some versions of the story say that after Vassilisa’s escape, the witch was turned into a crow and she lost all her powers.

The witch’s cat

Bába Yagá’s black cat was ill-treated by her, so it helped Vassilisa escape her clutches.

Vassilisa and the skull

When Vassilisa returned home with the skull that she had stolen from Bába Yagá’s fence, its glowing eyes shone on her stepmother and stepsisters, turning them to ashes.

Witch burning

With the arrival of Christianity in Central and Eastern Europe, witches came to be regarded as evil women who performed the Devil’s work. Many women suspected of being witches were burned at the stake, most of whom had nothing to do with witchcraft at all. Making models of witches that are burned on May Day is still a popular custom in Central Europe. Such customs, associated with the many rituals that celebrate the arrival of spring, are also held in remembrance of those who died.

Bába Yagá chasing Mariassa

The witch became trapped in the swift river and could not row fast enough with her pestle to catch Mariassa.

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MYTHS OF WOOD AND WATER

The Slavic lands are full of dense forests and misty lakes, both natural and man-made. From earliest times these places were believed to have their special spirits. Some were threatening beings that embodied the anxiety of travellers, who were fearful of getting lost in the woods or drowning while crossing a lake. Even country people, who knew the forests and lakes of their region well, were wary of these spirits.

RUSALKAS

Rusalkas were alluring water nymphs known for their beautiful song. They probably originated as fertility spirits, associated with particular lakes and with the life-giving power of water. But they were later said to be the souls of children who had died at a young age, or of women who had drowned themselves. Their song lured passers-by into the water. One story told how a Rusalka left the water when she fell in love with a mortal prince. She had to lose her voice to survive in the air, but for a while she was happy. However, her lover left her for a mortal woman and she faded away into the water once more.

WATER SPIRITS

Like the Rusalkas, water spirits and nixes lived in lakes and, especially, mill ponds. A legend from southeastern Europe tells of a nix who helped a mortal. There was a young mill-hand who loved the miller’s daughter. But the miller wanted his daughter to marry a rich man from the local castle. One day, the two rivals fought and the mill-hand was pushed into the mill pond, where he was found by a nix. The mill-hand entertained the nix on his violin. The two got on so well that when the mill-hand was about to leave the water, the friendly nix gave him a magical ring, which would grant the wearer three wishes. So the millhand’s wish to marry the miller’s daughter was fulfilled, thanks to the kindly spirit of the pond.

SADKO

A popular Slavic myth tells of the minstrel Sadko who was invited by a water spirit to play in his palace. The spirits danced to Sadko’s music till he grew tired and could play no more. A wise water spirit advised Sadko to stop the dance by breaking the strings of his lute. If he did this, the sea god would ofer him a wife in return for his playing – but he must choose the last of the women ofered to him, and even then he must never touch her. Sadko did as he was told, choosing the last woman the sea god ofered, and lying apart from her. But at night, his right foot accidentally touched her. To his amazement, Sadko woke up alone on the river bank, to find he was lame in his right foot.

THE WOOD DOVE

The magic of both woods and water come together in the Slavic legend of the wood dove. There was once an old woodcutter who was poisoned by his wicked wife because she wanted to marry a handsome young man with whom she was in love. Soon after his death, the woman married her lover and they had a lavish wedding feast. At first they lived together happily. Meanwhile, grass grew over the woodcutter’s grave and a young oak tree took root there. Whenever the woman passed the grave, a wood dove perched in the tree cooed at her accusingly. Each time she heard the wood dove, she felt it was the voice of her murdered husband. Deeply tormented, she drowned herself in the river.

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Mythical setting

As in many other cultures, the people of Central Europe saw dense forests, together with lakes, rivers, and waterfalls, as places of special power and the home of spirits.

A Rusalka and her victim

Some mortal men, smitten by the Rusalka’s song, dived into the water to be with her and met a sad death by drowning.

Antonín Dvorák

The Czech composer Dvorák (1841–1904) wrote a famous opera, Rusalka, about the nymph who left her home for a mortal love.

Werewolves

The legends of Central and Eastern Europe often feature werewolves, humans who could change shape to become wolves. Malevolent and bloodthirsty, they appeared when the moon was full and preyed on the unsuspecting. It was said that babies born with a birthmark were likely to become werewolves. Plants such as rye and mistletoe, and a herb called wolfsbane, were believed to ward of werewolf attacks.

Vodyanoi

The Vodyanoi was the most familiar Russian water spirit. Unlike the kindly nix, he was a dangerous creature who lured passers-by into his watery lair, where they subsequently drowned.

Carp

Water spirits often sorted the fish in the pond, sending eels on their regular migrations. Fishermen in search of carp placed a pinch of tobacco in the water to please the spirits.

Sadko's lute

Sadko was a minstrel who had fallen on hard times. His most prized possession was the gusli, or lute, with which he made his living as a musician.

The minstrel Sadko

The musical theme of Sadko’s story made it attractive to composers. The Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908) wrote an opera based on the tale.

Voice of the dove

Birds often speak in folk tales because their song has a vocal quality. To the woodcutter's guilty wife, even the cooing of a dove sounded accusatory.

Woodcutter

Forests were sources of fuel and building material for the Slavic peoples, and woodcutters often figure in their myths of the forest.

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THE FIREBIRD

Slavic mythology describes the firebird as a beautiful creature with a long tail and stunning red, yellow, and orange feathers that glow as if on fire. The firebird inspires wonder in all who see it, causing them to desire it. But it is not easy to capture, and those who do manage to catch it often have to face a multitude of problems that come in its wake.

THE MYTH

There was once a king who owned a wonderful apple orchard that he was especially proud of, because one of its trees bore golden apples. But each night, he found that some of the golden apples would disappear. So the king commanded Ivan, a stable boy, to guard the tree at night. The first night that Ivan stood guard in the orchard, a firebird came and stole some apples. Ivan attempted to grab the bird, but the creature was so swift that he could only catch hold of a single feather as it flew away. Ivan delivered the feather to the king who marvelled at it and dispatched Ivan to find and capture the firebird.

CATCHING THE FIREBIRD

After he had travelled a few miles on his quest for the firebird, Ivan came across a grey wolf, who told him how to catch the bird. Ivan would have to soak some cheese in beer and scatter the food on the ground to tempt the firebird. Ivan followed the wolf’s instructions and was able to catch his quarry since the firebird became drunk after feeding on the beer-soaked cheese. Then Ivan climbed onto the wolf’s back and the wolf took him to the king’s palace. The king was very pleased, and locked the firebird in a specially-made golden cage.

IVAN AND YELENA

The king then sent Ivan on another errand – to fetch a beautiful princess named Yelena, who lived far away across the ocean, and who the king wanted to marry. The grey wolf helped Ivan yet again, taking him to Yelena, and carrying both Ivan and the princess on the return journey.

During their travels, Ivan and Yelena fell in love. But they were faced with a dilemma since the king was waiting to marry Yelena. Once more, the wolf had a plan to aid Ivan. When they reached the palace, the wolf revealed itself to be a shape-changer and transformed into a very beautiful princess, whom Ivan presented to the king. The king proposed marriage, and when the “wolf-princess” accepted, took her straight to church. But as the king was about to kiss his bride, she turned back into the wolf, and the king died instantly of shock.

After the king’s death, Ivan became ruler in his place, and married his beloved Yelena. He was very grateful to the firebird, which was the catalyst for the adventures that had culminated in his marriage and coronation. So King Ivan set the creature free, turning a blind eye to the golden apples that would frequently go missing.

SUPERNATURAL WORLD

In this legend, the world of animals and plants is full of supernatural powers, which have a major influence on the way events turn out. Foremost is the firebird itself, which lets pearls fall from its beak and has feathers that glow like flames. The apples are also said to be special – they bring youth and strength to those who eat them, so by stealing the apples, the bird is symbolically stealing the king’s power. Finally, the wolf is not sinister (unlike in other tales), and uses its shape-changing ability to help Ivan.

SLAVIC ANIMAL MYTHS

The firebird is one of several mythical creatures in Slavic mythology that have miraculous abilities or that reflect either the dangers of the countryside or the mysterious power of the natural world. Traditional Slavic tales include many locally familiar birds and animals that take on specific characteristics in folklore: proverbially crafty foxes, swift horses, shape-changing wolves, and a golden cockerel that crows to warn a king of invasion.

KEY CHARACTERS

There are several versions of the firebird story, but they usually contain the same key characters: the firebird, Ivan, the king, the grey wolf, and Yelena. A common theme is that Yelena’s hand has been promised to the king against her wishes, and so Ivan and the wolf kidnap her. In some stories, Yelena’s love for Ivan enables her to escape from an unwelcome marriage. In another version, Ivan is one of the king’s sons, who has been tasked with catching the firebird as a way of becoming the king’s heir. Ivan succeeds and his brothers kill him when he wins the princess, but the wolf’s magic revives him.

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The magical wolf

The wolf was a complex symbol, with links to both the dead and the world of evil, as well as to good and the overcoming of difficulties.

Apples of eternal youth

The apple tree bore golden apples, which signified not only strength and youth, but also danger and folly.

The loyal cockerel

The golden cockerel that warned a king about the arrival of his enemies became the centrepiece of an opera by the Russian composer Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908).

The unwitting bear

Sometimes slow and easy to deceive, but always strong, bears were once common throughout Europe and appear occasionally in Slavic legends.

Stravinsky

The composer Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) was one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century. Starting with writing music for ballets on traditional Slavic themes, he became famous for colourful orchestration and strong rhythms, developing his style in ways that changed the course of music. His ballet "The Firebird" (1910) was written for the Paris-based company, the Ballets Russes, and brought the traditional Slavic legend before a global audience.

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SLAVIC GODS OF POWER

The ancient Slavs, who lived in and around Russia, had numerous deities who ruled with great power over the Earth. Their control extended all the way from the sky, where the thunder god Perun held sway, to deep down into the Earth, the domain of Mati Syra Zemlya. The Slavs worshipped these gods by giving them offerings and assigning special days to them, occasions that combined holiday with devotion. Although their myths were orally transmitted, many of these powerful stories survived the coming of Christianity.

PERUN

Perun was the god of thunder and lightning. Although he was primarily a war god and his power was terrifying, he also represented the forces of good. When the sun was threatened by storm clouds that concealed it in their shadows, Perun smashed them with his thunderbolt, allowing the sun to reappear and ensuring that life on Earth could continue. The Slavs believed that humanity was constantly threatened by Veles, the god of the Underworld, who was always stealing cattle, kidnapping people, or otherwise causing mischief. At such times, Perun would strike him with his thunderbolt, sending the evil god hurrying back to his refuge. When Christian missionaries came to the Slavic regions, some of the attributes of Perun were transferred to the prophet called Ilyal, or Elijah.

MATI SYRA ZEMLYA

The Slavic Earth goddess was called Mati Syra Zemlya (Damp Mother Earth). Normally, she was not given a specific form, but her spirit was said to be embodied in the fertile earth beneath the feet of her devotees. Even though she usually lacked a shape, she was seen as vibrantly alive and, therefore, helped everything in the soil to come to life. On certain occasions when she did take human form, she was said to appear as a woman with dark, earth-coloured skin, wearing traditional clothes, who would visit people’s houses and bless them. On the holy days on which she appeared (notably 1 May and 24 June), no one was allowed to plough the soil. People worshipped her by digging a hole in the ground and putting in oferings of bread and wine.

BYELOBOG AND CHERNOBOG

A benevolent god, Byelobog, and a wicked god, Chernobog, are two of the most ancient deities of Slavic mythology, and some creation stories describe how the pair created the universe together. But the two fell out and were said to be perpetually at war, appearing at regular intervals to fight one another. Because this conflict between good and evil was eternal, they were seen as similar to, and possibly derived from, the Persian deities Ahura Mazda and Ahriman. Byelobog was held in special regard because he was one of the most prominent companions of the sun god Dazhbog. People said that he was also a god of sunshine and warmth, and that if worshipped, he would protect their wheat and ensure a good harvest. Sometimes he was depicted as a kindly, white-bearded old man, and sometimes as a powerful light.

KURENT

Kurent was the Slavic god of wine. A popular myth tells how the first humans enjoyed an easy life in a valley irrigated by seven rivers that flowed from an egg. They became greedy for more water and broke the egg, causing a great flood. All the people drowned, except for Kranyatz, a watchman, who was saved by Kurent. Later, Kranyatz argued with the god over who should rule the Earth, and after various trials, emerged as the winner. But he got carried away and climbed the mountain where the gods lived. He ate some meat that belonged to them, and got drunk from the wine given to him by Kurent. The gods kicked him down the mountain and he lost his power.

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The sky god

In addition to his weapons and his eagle, Perun was associated with many other attributes. Among the most important of these were the stone and metal that Slavic people used to make weapons.

The world tree

In Slavic mythology, the world was represented as a vast oak, with the Underworld in its roots. Perun was symbolized by an eagle that sat in the uppermost branches of the tree.

Veles the dragon

The Slavs imagined Veles, the god of the Underworld, as a dragon or serpent, who spent much of his time coiled among the roots of the sacred oak tree.

The god of light

The ancient Slavs closely associated the life-giving light and warmth of the sun with the benevolent god, Byelobog – especially after enduring a long, cold, dark night.

The god of darkness

As the god of darkness, Chernobog was most powerful during the “waning” phase of the year, when the nights are longer and the days become shorter.

The rescue of Kranyatz

When the flood waters continued to rise, Kurent offered Kranyatz his walking stick, actually a vine, and pulled him out of danger.

Ears of wheat

In addition to representing the fertility of the soil, Mati Syra Zemlya was also said to be present in the crops that grew on the ground, especially in the ripe ears of wheat.

Kurent mask

In Slovenia, sheepskin masks depicting Kurent are worn at the Kurentovanje carnival that is held to celebrate the arrival of spring.

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Written by Philip Wilkinson in "All About History Book of Myths and Legends", Imagine Publishing, UK, 2016, editor in chief Jon White, excerps pp. 74-81. Digitized, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.