ZENOBIA - THE WOMAN WHO DARED TO TAKE ON ROME

How this third century Palmyrene ruler carved an empire under Rome’s nose - and then lost it all.

At the political heart of London, just outside the Palace of Westminster, stands a statue of a woman wielding a spear. Its presence serves as a daily reminder of Boudicca’s defiance in the face of Roman invaders almost 2,000 years ago. But in Syria. a country ravaged by civil war, little remains to remind its people of their very own icon of Roman resistance: Zenobia.

Her story begins in Ancient Palmyra - the ‘City of palm trees' - built on an oasis in the Syrian Desert. Though it’s mentioned in tablets from the 19th century BC. it wasn't until its conquest by the Romans in AD 14 that Palmyra was put on the map. Rather than sufTer at the hands of its occupiers. the city was granted autonomy and, in AD 106, the Silk Road was re-routed through it. The massive increase in caravan traffic fuelled the city's fortunes, thanks to the taxes imposed on the traders. Magnificent building projects were commissioned that showcased a fusion of Greek, Roman and Persian architecture. Palmyra was now a major centre of culture and trade.

It was into this thriving metropolis, around AD 240, that Septimia Zenobia was born. Her family were Roman citizens - a status that had been bestowed on her father’s family - and she received a good education in Greek, Latin, Egyptian and Aramaic. As a girl, Zenobia was put in charge of the family's shepherds, showing no hesitation when it came to commanding men. She became adept at riding horses, was a fine hunter and supposedly could drink anyone under the table.

AS ALLURING AS CLEOPATRA

Not only was she intelligent and athletic, she was also beautiful. A dcscription of her in the 'Historia Augusta' a fourth century Roman collection of biographies - recalls: “Her face was dark and of a swarthy hue, her eyes were black and powerful beyond the usual wont. her spirit divinely great and her beauty incredible. So white were her teeth that many thought [that they were] pearls." Perhaps it was this combination of looks and brains that caught the eye of Septimius Odaenathus, the governor of Palmyra. whom she married when she was in her teens.

Rome, meanwhile. had fallen into crisis. In AD 235, Emperor Severus Alexander had been murdered by his own troops, beginning a protractcd period in which Roman generais fought each other for the crown; 11 men would sit on the imperial throne over the next 20 years. The decaying empire fell victim to frequent barbarian raids in the western provinces, while in the east the Sassanids were growing in power.

In AD 253, the Sassanid ruler Shapur I launched an invasion of the empire’s eastern territories. Emperor Valerian marched to confront Shapur’s army, but in AD 260 he was defeated and captured at the Battle of Edessa. According to legend, he was used by Shapur as a footstool before eventually dying in captivity, after which he was stuffed and put on display.

The Sassanids began ransacking Roman cities in the region. and it seemed like only a matter of time before they would reach Syria. Realising that autonomy under the Romans was far better than becomingea Sassanid footstool. Odaenathus organised a dcfence force. With Valerian's son Gallienus too busy dealing with the collapse of the western provinces to send aid, he instead made the decision to declare Odaenathus as ‘corrector totius Orientis’- commander in chief of the whole East - and put him in charge of defending the frontier. He was now the de facto ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire.

For seven years, Odaenathus managed to keep the Sassanids at bay. But, around AD 267, he was assassinated by an unknown conspirator, leaving the crown in the hands of his ten-year-old son by Zenobia, Vaballathus. As the boy was too young to rule on his own, Zenobia stepped in as regent. Having accompanied Odaenathus on his many campaigns, often choosing to march alongside the soldiers on foot, she had earned the respect and loyalty not only of Palmyra’s people, but also of its finest generais. The transition, therefore, was smooth, and she was crowned Queen Mother of Palmyra within a day of her husband’s death.

Though she was careful to acknowledge fealty to Rome, she asserted the right of her son to inherit his father’s newly acquired title. But her subjects knew that it was Zenobia who hcld the reins of power. At court, she surroundcd herself with intellectuals and philosophers. including the renowned Cassius Longinus. She dressed herself in the finest silk and jewels, and was waited on by eunuchs. As a ruler. she showed great tolerance towards her multicultural citizens and ensured the protection of Palmyra’s religious minorities.

SHEDDING HER STRINGS

However, it soon became clear that she was not content to remain a Roman client. She began forging allegiances with other major cities nearby and in AD 270, while the Emperor Claudius was busy fighting the Goths. Zenobia ordered her troops into Bosra - capital of Romes Arabian province. With the City captured, the Palmyrene army continued south along the Jordan Valley, claiming the entire province, along with Judaea. With so much instability throughout the Roman Empire, they were met with little resistance. Claudius' name was removed from the region’s coinage, replaced instead with that of Vaballathus.

Encouraged by news of Claudiuss death that summer. Zenobia made her most daring move yet, dispatching her army to conquer Roman-occupied Egypt. The prefect there Tenagino Probus, mounted a strong but futile defence, and committed suicide upon defeat.

With Zenobia now claiming to be a descendent of Cleopatra and the Ptolemies, she declared herself the legitimate successor to the throne and Egypt became part of the ever-growing Palmyrene Empire. Finally, in AD 271, Zenobia invaded Anatolia, with her army getting as far as Ancyra (modern-day Ankara). By August, her empire was at its zenith. In Rome things were changing. In to the power vacuum had stepped Aurelian, an infantryman who had risen through the ranks to become Emperor: a soldier first and a politician second. With some stability finally established in the west, in late-271 Aurelian began marching east, simultaneously sending a fleet of ships across the Mediterranean Sea to reclaim Egypt. By April AD 272. he had crossed the Bosporus and entered Anatolia.

OMENS IN THE NIGHT

One night, the great philosopher Apollonius came to him in a dream and said: “Aurelian, if you wish to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent." The Emperor heeded his advice, and rather than raze the rebelling cities to the ground, he offered to espare them. The policy bore fruit, as other citics - seeing that surrender to a merciful Emperor was better than enduring a bloody siege they would likely lose - quickly gave up their arms. Ancyra was regained without a struggle and nearby Tyana put up minimal resistance.

May AD 272 saw Aurelian and his men approaching Antioch. where Zenobia’s forces were waiting for him. Their armies met in a field at Immae. where they squared off in traditional battle formations. with infantry in the centre and cavalry on the flanks. Aurelian could see that the heavily armoured Palmyrene cataphracts (cavalry) were lar superior to his own horsemen. but he realiscd that this could be used to his advantage. They charged towards each other but. just before they engaged. Aurelian's lighter cavalry broke ranks and began to rctreat, lhe Palmyrene general. Zabadas, sensing victory. ordered his cataphracts to pursue them. But with the Syrian sun blazing down on their chain mail. they quickly became exhausted. and when they did so, the Romans turned back around and attacked. Very few of the Palmyrene cavalry made it back alive.

Zenobia and her surviving forces retreated to Antioch and under the cover of darkness, fled south. But Aurelian was hot on their heels. When the armies met again at the Battle of Emesa, it was the Palmyrene cavalry who unwittingly broke ranks, enabling the Roman infantry to attack their vulnerable flank. Once again, Zenobia was defeated. All that was left was to defend her capital.

Back in Palmyra, Zenobia began preparing the city for a siege. But the Romans, now in control of much of the surrounding area, blockaded her supply chains, and her resources quickly ran dry.

A letter arrived that read: “From Aurelian, Emperor of the Roman World and Recoverer of the East, to Zenobia and all others who are bound to her by alliance in war... I bid you surrender, promising that your lives shall be spared." But proud Zenobia was undeterred. She replied: "From Zenobia. Queen of the East ... You demand my surrender as though you were not aware that Cleopatra preferred to die a queen rather than remain alive." The last moment of her reign and of her life, she insisted, would be the same.

The city fell shortly after. but rather than follow the example of her supposed ancestor and die at her own hand. Zenobia mounted a camel and fled in the direction of Persia. She was captured before she could even cross the Euphrates River.

According to the 'Historia Augusta', Zenobia and her son were brought to Emesa for trial, where she blamed her actions on her advisors - namely Longinus, who was sentenced to death. However, with no contemporary reports of the trial, this show of cowardice may just be a Roman invention, to be exploited as propaganda.

DISGRACE, NOT DEATH

What happened next is unknown. Some say that Zenobia was beheaded, while others say that Aurelian showed mercy, and she lived the rest of her life in relative comfort. The most famous version of the story describes how she was brought back to Rome and paraded through the streets in gold shackles, weighed down by so much jewellery that she could barely stand.

Palmyra too fell back into relative obscurity. The Silk Road was redirected to bypass the city, and it remained little more than a minor legionary outpost for the rest of the Roman period. It was subsequently ruled by various Muslim factions, and finally reduced to a small villagc following its destruction by the Timurids in 1400.

Thankfully, much of the architecture from Zenobia’s heyday remained intact, including the Lion of Al-lat, the Temples of Baalshamin and Bel, and the Tower of Elahbel. They survived largely unscathed for a further 615 years, until. in 2015. Palmyra came under the control of ISIL during the ongoing Syrian Civil War. After surviving for almost two millennia, these ancient monuments, along with many others. were destroyed in the space of just five months.

Written by Alicea Francis in "History Revealed", UK, August 2018, experts pp. 55-59. Digitized, adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.