DOMESTICATION OF THE HORSE

The Horse: Prehistoric Prey

Man established a relationship with the horse some 50,000 years ago. While Cro-Magnon man admired the beauty of the horse, he primarily considered it a source of food. Lacking the means of effectively pursuing the horse or killing it from a distance, the prehistoric hunter had to seek other ways to kill his prey. Evidence of this is found at Salutre in France, where there is a site with the bones of some 10,000 horses which were run over a cliff by Cro-Magnon hunters.

Pack Animal for a People on the Move

Some authorities maintain that these early Cro-Magnon farmers were forced to become nomadic. Perhaps other people drove them off their farm lands and they were forced to move from place to place. In this period, it is likely that the docile horses were used to carry goods when the camp was moved. The pack horse was now a worker - a source of help to man - not just a meal on the hoof.

The Horse of the Steppes 

The second probable phase of man's domestication of the horse is only slightly more satisfactory in terms of the horse's well-being. Around 4000 BC farmers evidently kept horses for meat, and possibly milked the mares. Excavations of refuse remains show that the horse became progressively more important in the economy of these primitive farmers.

Early Attempts at Riding

It was probably during herding that the necessity arose to jump on one horse's back to follow others. An agile man on a small horse needed no saddle, but some kind of control was essential. This may at first have been no more than a rope around the jaw, or some sort of hackamore. But antler cheekpieces, which served as toggles to soft mouthpieces (of rope, rawhide, or sinew), have been found at sites of the earliest domesticated horse on the steppes north of the Black Sea. Until recently, it was considered that in this region the horse was long used only for casual and primitive riding. Evidence now suggests that these people may have been much more accomplished horsemen, and that their equestrian abilities might have led to their emergence as nomadic herdsmen far earlier than originally thought.

Horseback Riders May Have First Appeared on the Ukrainian Steppes - 4,000 BC

While it had long been accepted that humans harnessed horses prior to riding them, new archeological research in Eurasia now may push the date for the first horseback riding back to approximately 4,000 BC Excavations from Dereivka in the Ukrainian steppes have unearthed horse teeth from this period which show possible signs of bit wear. This would mean that man became mounted shortly after domestication - some 3,000 years prior to significant horseback riding in the "civilized" Near East. As these people had no written language, were nomadic, and utilized materials which have not survived, little more is known of their early riding efforts. It would be more than 3,000 years before their legacy, the mounted Sythian cavalry, would make their presence felt in the "civilized" world around 670 BC.

The Wheel

Early Man has the Cart Before the Horse in the Near East.

Oxen had already been yoked to the pole of a plow, probably early in the forth millennium BC, in the Near East. Towards the end of the millennium they are yoked to sledges, the latter being eventually mounted on rollers, then on wheels. Vehicles with disk wheels appear near the beginning of the third millennium BC and are depicted as drawn also by equids - either onagers or asses hybrids. The four-wheeled war wagon depicted on the "Standard" from Ur, in southern Mesopotamia, of about 2,500 BC, is pulled by a yoke team of four equids with nose-ring control. The composite disk wheels are made up of two crescent-shaped pieces of wood held together by slats, and very likely by a rawhide tire, shrunk on wet, of which some material evidence has been found. Apparent hub and axle ends and linch-pins seem to point to wheels that already revolved on affixed axles. By the time numerous horses were brought in from the barbarian north to the civilization of the Near East, a light chariot with spoke wheels had been developed for war and hunting. Yoked to it, the horse rapidly superseded other equids in harness for these purposes - although not for the less glamorous types of draft.

Horse and Wagon: Speed and Power

The horse first appeared as a domesticated draft animal between 3,000 and 2,000 BC in the Near East. The more extensive presence of archaeological evidence from areas of the Near East provided the first clear insight into the horse's domestication. It is known that the horse was not indigenous to this area but was probably imported from the north; that is, the steppes of southern Asia. The wheel had already been developed, and the ox and onager were used as draft animals. Because of its speed, the horse soon became the favorite draft animal. At first, horses were forced to wear ox yokes which tended to cut off their wind. Eventually breast straps and collars were developed especially for the draft horse.

The Yoke, 800 BC

In the ancient civilizations the horse was used primarily as a harness animal for almost 1,000 years, from the early second millennium BC to the early first millennium BC Equine draft was preceded by and modeled after a draft system developed for oxen, which was not particularly well-adapted to equine anatomy. Throughout antiquity horses continued to be harnessed in pairs, with each horse on either side of a pole and under a yoke. The yoke was secured by a strap around the throat that tended to press on the horse's windpipe. By the 15th century BC in Egypt, we find a means of better adapting the yoke to the anatomy of equids, in the form of a yoke saddle. This was a wishbone-shaped wooden object, lashed to the yoke by its "handle" and with its "legs" lying along the horse's shoulders and thus taking considerable pressure off the throat. The yoke saddles rested on pads and their ends were joined by crescent-shaped straps that went across the lower part of the horse's throat.

Anatomy of an Ancient Wheel, 1,500 BC

 The hub of an ancient Egyptian wheel utilized very intricate joinery in its construction. The spokes were created in halves, and half of one spoke was made of the same piece of wood as half of the adjoining spoke. In this way the spokes became an integral part of the hub. In terms of design, relative to available materials, the Egyptian wheel is a remarkable technological achievement.

Egyptian Wheelwrights Strive for a More Perfect Wheel

A mural from the tomb of Hapu in Egypt, of 15th-century BC date, shows a chariot-maker's workshop. In the upper register, the felloe (the rim of the wheel supported by spokes)of a wheel is being planed. The Egyptian wheel was very light and derived its strength from its special design, as described above. Several different woods were used in the making of chariots, some of them, such as elm, imported from as far away as northern Syria, from which ships brought a variety of woods for chariot-making and other joinery.

Early Snaffle Bits 

All-metal bits were first implemented in the Near East around 1,500 BC The greatly increased use of the light chariot in warfare called for stronger and more effective control of the teams. Two types of snaffle bits appear almost simultaneously - the plain bar snaffle and the jointed bit. (The snaffle is basically a bit that acts through pressure on the corners of the horse's mouth.) Both variants usually had studs on the inner surfaces of the cheekpieces in order to enforce directional control when one rein was pulled. (Certain types of "bit burrs" are still in use today.) Note that on all ancient bits - with the exception of the Scythian ones - the ends of the mouthpieces pass through the cheek pieces, a type very rare today, and found only in "double ring snaffles" and the so-called "sliding-mouth bits."

Plaques From King Tut's Tomb, 1,350 BC

Inside the burial chamber of the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamen, a gold fan was found lying propped against the wall of a shrine. Traces of the original feather quills still remained in the base, and an inscription on the handle stated that these were "ostrich feathers obtained by his majesty when hunting in the desert east of Heliopolis." These two plaques reproduce the scenes on the front and back of the fan and depict the original hunt 3,300 years ago. In one, Tutankhamen aims his arrow at a pair of ostriches running ahead of his chariot. In the other, the young king returns with two attendants carrying the prize.

Luristan Harness Ring, 1,000 - 700 BC

This ancient Luristan (Iran) ring may once have been a part of a chariot horse's harness. Royalty and the ruling class were fond of decorating their horses and chariots with intricate bronze, gold or ivory. The horses sometimes wore plumes on the poll pieces on their heads. The harness ring is topped with the head of a moufflon (a wild sheep of Sardinia and Corsica) with a long snout. Its slender horns arch into the mouths of two lions clinging to the sides of the ring.

Harnessing the Horses Power Kikkuli, 1,350 BC

Around 1345 B.C., Kikkuli, Horsemaster to the Hittite king Suppililiuma, recorded a war horse training regime. As a result of his method, the Hittites became a mighty power rivaling Egypt.
After murdering his brother to gain the throne, Suppililiuma set his heart upon Hittite supremacy. He started by buying large numbers of horses, and somehow acquired the services of a leading Mitannian horsemaster by the name of Kikkuli. Kikkuli 'defected' to the Hittites and trained their horses, turning them into superb war machines. As a result, Suppililiuma wiped Mitanni off the face of the earth. All we have of their incredible knowledge is the horse training text written by Kikkuli. It survives in cuneiform in four clay tablets, and is known today as "The Kikkuli Text".
Kikkuli obviously had difficulty getting the high-tech Mitannian concepts across in the Hittite language, for he frequently gives a term such as "Intervals" in his own language, followed by "this means" with an attempt to explain in Hittite. For example, "And 1/2 DANNA and 20 IKU he trots them. Thereupon 38 IKU he canters. One calls this 'sinisella auzameua'. One does it this way: The first time he canters 20 IKU. The second time he canters 7 IKU. One calls this 'two-heat canter'."(1 DANNA = 3.6 miles, 1 IKU = 250 yards.)
After Kikkuli's demise, the Hittites were at a loss to understand his techniques, for we have several Hittite horse-training tablets which have regressed substantially.
The Kikkuli Method is amazing from a modern equine physiology point of view. The Kikkuli Method uses Interval training, and makes much use of leading the horses (from chariots) at the gaits of trot, canter and gallop, before subjecting them to the weight bearing stress of a rider or driver.
The Kikkuli Text details a seven month training regime. Rest days are scheduled, but workouts sometimes number three a day. Kikkuli's Interval training program contained three stages. The first two stages develop strong legs and a strong cardiomuscular system, and the third stage develops neuromuscular conditioning. His workouts included brief recoveries to lower the heart rate partially. Even swimming is done in intervals of three or five repeats, with a rest in between.
After being worked in harness, the horses were brushed down and cooled out. Every workout includes a warm down period, and all workouts were carried out on a marked course. The horses were washed in warm water and rugged.
The Kikkuli Method identifies the precise moment in training when the horse has adapted, physically and psychologically, to its training. It also encompasses a four day period known as the "Culling Process" which allows performance potential to be estimated. The Culling Process also identifies horses prone to Chronic Respiratory Disease. From days 11-20, the horses are stabled, and cracks in the stable walls are blocked. This causes an increase in dust, fungal and ammonia levels which in turn identifies underlying respiratory disorders in a horse.
In 1991, the 3,300 year old, seven month method was duplicated at the University of New England, Australia. The results revealed that the Kikkuli Method enables horses to remain sound while becoming extremely fit. The Hittites needed very fit horses, as they had a war season much like we have a baseball season. The war zone was a four week march away, and the horses had to fight in battles all summer. One famous battle involved a 44 mile (70 km) march overnight before hard fighting all day.
Kikkuli also was careful to lay down the very times salt should be fed, and even malt as carbohydrate replacement. The horses were fed three to four times a day, and Kikkuli gives the exact measurement for each feeding. He did have a standard set feed, which is as follows:

 Sometimes the horses were fed pollard and pulled-up grass. Pollard was always fed in the meal after the swimming intervals.

Here are some examples of the workouts:

"And 1/2 DANNA 20 IKU he trots. Thereupon again 1/2 DANNA 20 IKU he canters, 5 intervals."
"And he trots 2 DANNA but canters at the 80 IKU marker. Again they canter, over 1 DANNA and 20 IKU. When he drives back they unhitch them."
"And 1 DANNA he trots, but he hard gallops at the 7 IKU marker. But when he drives back, they unhitch them."
"2 1/2 DANNA he trots, and canters at the 7 IKU marker. Then he drives again. And at the 10 IKU marker he canters."

The intervals came in the latter phase of training. In the initial phase, a single daily workout was repeated for several days. This was followed by another phase where a longer daily single workout was repeated for a number of days. For Days 23-32, the horses were led at a trot for 2 DANNA. By Days 111-120, the horses were led at the trot for 7 DANNA and cantered for 7 IKU. After this, the distances were decreased greatly but by then the interval training had started in earnest.
(Based an a translation by Ann Nyland, 1990)

The Reluctant Rider, 1,350 BC

Traditionally it has been felt that driving came before riding in the civilized lands of the Near East, where recorded history began. There were large chariot forces which required schooled, disciplined, and highly conditioned horses at a time when riding was probably still pursued only in a casual fashion. Disciplined cavalry mounts, trained to function with their riders in formation, are thought to have come only after 1,000 BC The state of riding before 1,000 BC is depicted by this scantily clad, unarmed rider (groom or messenger) in a camp scene. He is still riding the donkey seat that was used 600 years before in conjunction with nose-ring control. It would be another 600 years before the rider of antiquity sat upon a horse like a true horseman.
Horse and Rider: No Mean Feat The fact that the early horse was a relatively small animal, probably not exceeding 12 hands in height, has long been put forth as a reason for the late development of horseback riding in the Near East. Even today, howwever, horses of this size are used as effective mounts, leading one to question the logic of this assumption. The reason for man's preference for driving over horseback riding in the Near East still remains somewhat of a mystery. In one early letter to King Zimri-Lim (1782-1759 BC) of the city of Mari, it was advised that the preservation of his dignity required that he should ride in a chariot, or even on a mule, but not on horseback. Could it have been, as suggested by noted horse historian Mary Littauer, that horse sweat was considered so repugnant that horseback riding was shunned by the elite?

The Mesoptamian Nose Ring, 2,000 BC

The use of the nose-ring on the horse in Mesopotamia was probably due to its effectiveness as a control device on oxen and onagers. A rider held a rein from a nose ring in one hand and a whip in the other. Directional control would have been by leg, stick, voice signal, or by a shift in the rider's balance. The nose ring fell from use in the Near East in the early second millennium BC

The Soft Bit, 4,000 B. C.

The first "bridle" appeared in what is now eastern Europe and southern Russia. These bridles and antler or bone cheekpieces, and the mouthpieces were of rope, sinew, or rawhide. Then as now, the other parts of the bridle served the purpose of holding the bit in the proper position in the horse's mouth. The cheekpieces from the early bridle are all that remain today. The soft mouthpieces must have decomposed long ago. The cheekpieces positioned the sinew mouthpiece properly on the "bars" of the horse's mouth, the toothless portion of the horse's gum. This type of bit was perhaps the most gentle on the horse.
As noted earlier, recent work by Dr. David Anthony on the Steppes of the Ukraine, indicate that the soft bit might well have been used here as early as 4,000 BC by the nomadic tribes of the area.

The Mysterious Grandeur ofthe Etruscan Horsemen, 1,000-509 BC

The Etruscans were an unidentified people who occupied northern and central Italy during the first millennium BC Their Roman conquerors (who claimed a Trojan origin via Aeneas) destroyed their written documents, but a rich artistic record remains. A famous tomb painting shows a young man bringing up a chariot horse to be harnessed.With the horse's increasing military importance, and popularity with the aristocracy in recreational activities like polo and hunting, the horse became a prevalent art motif. This new Chinese breed is frequently depicted in their art with fine head, long sweeping neck, muscular hind quarters and arched back.

The Scythians, 800 BC Mastering the Art of War on Horseback

Emerging from a collection of scattered southern Russian steppe tribes, the Scythians unified as a group of nomadic horsemen with common customs and interests about 800 BC They appeared for the first time in history during the 7th century BC, when they made an invasion into the Near East, riding as far south as Palestine. They occupied part of northern Iran for some 40 years. The Scythians were primarily archers, skilled at using the powerful composite bow from horse back. One of the techniques they mastered was that of shooting backwards over their horses' croups as they turned away from the enemy. The Scythians nomadic way of life also enabled them to burn and destroy all their property before giving it up to the greatest invading army of the time, that of Darius, the Persian. All this was made possible by the mobility provided by vast herds of horses. Scythian horses also are the first recorded geldings. Horses in the Near East in antiquity (and largely today) were not castrated. The Sythians' wealth was counted in horses. A belief in the continuation of material life after death caused the wealthy to take quantities of horses (in one case 400) with them into the grave.

Scythian Gold, 500-400 BC

The importance of the horse to the Scythians is evidenced by the many artifacts with a horse motif recovered from their burial mounds. Through kindred tribesmen in the Altas Mountains, the Scythians had access to an important source of gold. From it they fashioned jewelry, arms, decorations, and food and wine vessels, all of which were barbaric in style. They commissioned Greek goldsmiths to make them more beautifully refined objects.

Fearless Warriors

A carving on a gold comb from the Solokha tomb illustrates the Greek goldsmith's work commissioned by the Scythians. Although it represents a fight between Scythians, the one not yet unhorsed wears a Greek helmet. The trousers, so different from the scanty or flowing garments of the civilized world of that time, are typically Scythian and designed for the rider. We may thank the horse for this item of man's dress.

The Horse in China 

The first domestication of the horse in China is thought to have occured during the Lungshan period, between 3,000 an 2,300 B. C. Horse drawn war chariots, first used in Asia, were introduced to China during the Shang Dynasty (about 1,450 to 1,050 BC). Repeated invasion and devastating plunder by the Hiung-nu or Huns led to the development of a Chinese light cavalry, which provided a more effective defense against the invaders. The first Great Wall was completed in 209 BC and extended 1,500 miles from Kansu to the Yellow Sea. Originally designed to protect the Chinese from the barbarians of the northern steppes, the wall better served as a boundary between cultured China and Mongolia. Continued clashes with the Huns prompted China to adopt and refine their enemy's riding technique based on the use of a saddle, and the bow and arrow. During the Han Dynasty a more unified and coordinated war effort proved successful in stopping the destruction and pillage. In addition to superior tactics, improvements were made in selective breeding. Expeditions were sent to Southeast Asia to trade for stallions of the Tarpon or Persian type, in an attempt to upgrade the Mongolian pony in use since 300 BC

Chinese Harnessing Systems

One of the great inventions in world history was the breast-strap harnessing system for horses. This probably occurred in China during the late Warring States Period around 300 BC.

Early Ox and Throat-and-girth Horse Harness

Throughout the world, oxen were harnessed prior to horses. Horses, however, have greater endurance and can generate 50% more foot-pounds per second than oxen because of their greater speed. When humans first attempted to harness the power of the horse, it was quite logical that they looked for a model to the highly successful yoke-based system used with oxen. The physiology of the two animals, however, is quite different in that the ox's spinal column forms a bony hump in front of which a yoke can effectively be placed.

The traditional ox harnessing system, with the yoke on each side of a central pole or between shafts was, however, quite inappropriate for horses. As humans attempted to modify and adapt the existing ox system, the throat-and-girth system emerged as the first harnessing system for horses.
The throat-and-girth horse harness is made up of a girth circling the belly and the rear part of the ribs with the point of traction being located at the top. To prevent the girth slipping backwards, a throat strap was added. This crossed the withers diagonally and surrounded the throat of the animal, compressing the horse's trachea. The inevitable result was to suffocate the horse as soon as it attempted to pull against the harness.
The magnitude of the acceptance of the throat-and-girth harnessing system, and of its staying power, is best summarized by Joseph Needham.
The really astonishing thing about the throat-and-girth harness is the immense spread which it had both in space and time. We find it first in the oldest Chaldean representations from the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC onwards [and] in Sumeria and Assyria in -1400 to -800 [BC]. It was in sole use in Egypt from at least -1500 [BC], where it is shown on all paintings and carvings of chariots and horses, and it was likewise universal in Minoan and Greek times. Innumerable examples occur in Roman representations of all periods. The empire of the throat-and-girth system also covered Etruscan, Persian and early Byzantine vehicles without exception. Western Europe knew nothing else until about +600 [AD], nor did Islam. One of its last appearances occurs on a bas-relief of the 14th century at Florence in Italy, where it may be a conscious archaism.
The equine throat-and-girth harness was very inefficient. The degree of this inefficiency was measured in 1910 by Lefebvre des Noattes. He determined that two horses using throat-and-girth harness could pull about 1,100 pounds, or roughly one-half ton. On the other hand, des Noattes' experiments showed that a single horse utilizing a modern collar-harness can easily pull a load of a ton and a half. As the pulling efficiency of the breast-strap harness system and collar system are virtually the same, it is possible to look at textual and archaeological evidence regarding the size and weight of Chinese vehicles to determine when the Chinese made the transition from throat-and-girth harness to the breast-strap system.

Transition to the Breast-strap Harnessing System

A study of Han dynasty representations of chariots and carriages, compared with those from all other ancient civilizations, clearly shows that the much heavier Chinese vehicles, carrying up to six people, could be pulled by a single horse. Much lighter vehicles from other parts of the world could carry a maximum load of two people but often required four horses. This could only be possible with a more efficient harnessing system which did not restrict the horse's ability to breath.
In the fourth century BC text, Mozi (The Book of Master Mo), a passage records the comments of Mo Di regarding a kite built by Gongshu Fan. The passage also gives us a good description as to the weight of Chinese vehicles of that time.
Kungshu Phan [Gongshu Fan] constructed a bird from bamboo and wood, and when completed, it flew. For three days it stayed up in the air, and Kungshu [Gongshu] was proud indeed of his skill. But Mo Tzu [Mozi] said to him, 'Your achievement in constructing this bird is not comparable with that of a carpenter in making a linchpin [used to secure the wheels to a horse-drawn vehicle]. In a few moments he cuts out a piece of wood which, though only three inches long, can carry a load no less than fifty tan [dan] in weight [6,000 lbs. One tan equaled 120 lbs. in Warring States Period]. Indeed, any achievement which is beneficial to man may be said to be skillful while anything not beneficial may be said to be clumsy.
These figures certainly support the view that the breast-strap harness must have already been invented and in use by the late Warring States period (480-221 BC). In some cases, horses are even shown harnessed in tandem to shafted four-wheeled wagons. This arrangement would also have been impossible without the use of the breast-strap harness.
Based on the evidence, it seems logical to assume, that probably during the Warring States period, someone realized that the horse's shoulders could be surrounded by a trace. If this was suspended by a strap coming down from the withers and attached to the middle point of the curving vehicle shafts, it would greatly increase the efficiency of the animal's work. The continuation of the trace around the animal's hind-quarters, and its support by a hip-strap, was not a necessary part of the pulling mechanism, but allowed for the backward movement of the cart, and its braking when descending slopes.
How the Chinese were led to make one of the greatest breakthroughs in equestrian history is still a mystery. One theory holds that the invention of the breast-strap harnessing system for horses was derived from the human harness system used for boat haulage on China's canals and rivers. The hauling of boats upstream by large groups of men was an ancient practice in China. Men would have to have realized from their own experience that to be effective, pulling force must be exerted from the sternal and clavicular region in such a way as to permit free breathing.
After the invention of the breast-strap system, the yoke became virtually useless. Prior to the beginning of the Zhou dynasty it took the shape of a narrow "V" or wishbone. The lower ends of the yoke were turned up to act as reins guides. Around the Warring States period, the Chinese began to abandon the central pole in favor of straight shafts and the curving S-shaped shafts typical of the Han dynasty chariot. The shafts were originally connected above and behind the horse's neck by a crossbar. The yoke, while now serving no essential purpose, still persisted, probably as a guide for the reins. After the invention of the breast-strap harness and the attachment of the traces directly to the bend of the shafts, the crossbar and the forked yoke eventually disappeared. Since the breast-strap harness system would have been necessary in order for these vehicles to have been powered by a single horse, it is reasonable to assume that its invention preceded the shift to shafted carriages.

From http://www.imh.org/ (this article is missing today and was saved by Leopoldo Costa in April, 26, 2004. (Edited, illustrated and adapted to be posted) 


See Also

HORSE IN THE MIDDLE AGES	http://stravaganzastravaganza.blogspot.com/2011/04/history-of-horse-in-middle-ages.html
HORSE ACUPUNCTURE TREATMENT	http://stravaganzastravaganza.blogspot.com/2011/06/horse-acupuncture-treatment.html
SPANISH HORSE IN THE USA	http://stravaganzastravaganza.blogspot.com/2011/05/colonial-spanish-horse-in-usa.html