FOOD PREPARATION AND COOKING IN THE 20th CENTURY

Twentieth century technological developments for preparing and cooking food consisted of both objects and techniques. Food engineers’ primary objectives were to make kitchens more convenient and to reduce time and labor needed to produce meals. A variety of electric appliances were invented or their designs improved to supplement hand tools such as peelers, egg beaters, and grinders. By the close of the twentieth century, technological advancements transformed kitchens, the nucleus of many homes, into sophisticated centers of microchip-controlled devices. Cooking underwent a transition from being performed mainly for subsistence to often being an enjoyable hobby for many people. Kitchen technology altered people’s lives. The nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution had initiated the mechanization of homes. Cooks began to use precise measurements and temperatures to cook. Many people eagerly added gadgets to their kitchens, ranging from warming plates and toasters to tabletop cookers. Some architects designed kitchens with built-in cabinets, shelves,and convenient outlets to encourage appliance use.
Because they usually cooked, women were the most directly affected by mechanical kitchen innovations. Their domestic roles were redefined as cooking required less time and was often accommodated by such amenities as built-in sinks and dishwashers. Ironically, machines often resulted in women receiving more demands to cook for events and activities because people no longer considered cooking to be an overwhelming chore.

Domestic technology contributed to home economics and dietetics becoming professional fields in the twentieth century. Home economists studied how household machines influenced cooking and advised people how to incorporate kitchen appliances into their lives. Guides instructed people how to utilize appliances to cook foods for entertaining groups. During the two world wars and economic depressions, people adjusted cooking techniques to cope with food shortages and rationing. Throughout the twentieth century, inventors created new appliances to ease cooking burdens. When the century began, many kitchens in the U.S. still had wood-burning stoves or fireplaces. As electricity became available, some people invested in electric ranges. Costs limited mass acceptance, but gradually range costs became affordable. The standardization of electrical outlets, plugs, and currents in the 1920s and development of safety standards aided adoption of electric appliances. Electric stoves enabled cooks to bake goods without having to wait for a fire to warm sufficiently. These stoves were also cleaner than cooking on hearths. By the late 1970s, microwaves had replaced or supplemented stoves in many homes, altering how people prepared and cooked meals. Cooks utilized a variety of appliances to prepare food for cooking. In the early twentieth century, engineers used small motors then magnetrons to create powerful kitchen appliances. Mixers quickly and smoothly combined dry goods with eggs, margarine, and other ingredients instead of people manually stirring dough. Crock pots and cookers enabled cooks to combine ingredients to cook unsupervised for a specified time.  Automatic bread machines mixed, kneaded, raised, and baked breads. Coffee and tea makers brewed beverages timed for breakfast drinking and kept them warm. Espresso machines steamed frothy beverages. Cordless kettles heated liquids wherever people wanted to prepare hot drinks or soups. Juicers extracted liquid from fruits. Some appliances were available only in certain geographical regions or met specific cultural needs such as rice steamers in Asia. As people traveled and encountered new devices, those technologies were often introduced to other countries.  The Internet enabled people to become aware of and buy brands and types of appliances they might not find in local stores and are only available in specific countries or regions. Manufacturers such as Samsung and Toshiba produced appliances in Asia, while companies including DeLonghi and Bourgeois outfitted European homes. Innovators from many nations envisioned, adapted, and improved cooking tools.
Technologists worldwide created appliances to meet specific needs and local demand. The German manufacturer Miele produced the first electric dishwasher in Europe in 1929. Maurice Bourgeois invented the first European built-in oven, resulting in his company becoming the leader in the convection oven market. At Sunbeam, Ivar Jepson designed kitchen appliances between the World Wars.

The Sunbeam Mixmaster patented in the late 1920s surpassed other mechanical mixers because it had two beaters with interlocking blades that could be detached from the machine.
Previously, the popular mixer that L.H. Hamilton, Chester Beach, and Fred Osius patented in 1911 only had one beater. Attachments enabled the Mixmaster to perform other tasks, including peeling, grinding, shelling, and juicing. The Mixmaster also could polish and sharpen utensils and open cans.
Inventors devised various electric toasters designs during the twentieth century. Efforts to create a reusable, unbreakable heating element to produce radiant heat for toasting sliced bread stymied many people. Engineer Albert Marsh patented Nichrome, a nickel and chromium alloy, in 1905. His invention enabled toaster heating elements to be produced. By 1909, consumers could purchase electric toasters developed by General Electric. Ten years later, the first pop-up toaster was patented. By the 1980s, toasters were designed to accommodate bagels. Plastics were used in addition to metals for cases, and microchip controls monitored toasting options. Modern appliances often had pre-twentieth century precedents. Denis Papin designed the first pressure cooker in 1679 France. Later engineers adapted his cooker to produce an airtight environment in which steam cooked food so that vitamins and minerals were retained. In 1939, the National Pressure Cooker Company first sold a cast iron saucepan pressure cooker called Presto. After World War II, pressure cookers were made from stainless steel. By the late 1950s, engineers designed electric cookware, which had removable heat controls so that the pans, griddles, skillets, and coffee makers could be immersed in water to clean. From the 1970s, cooks also used appliances designed to produce small servings. Sandwich machines and small indoor grills quickly cooked meals for individuals. Electric deep fryers prepared single portions of onion rings, french fries, and other fried foods. In contrast, kitchen technology also offered healthier fare. Hot-air popcorn poppers did not use oil. By the 1980s, the electric Salad Shooter sliced and shredded ingredients directly into bowls.
Cooking technology benefited from inventors’ curiosity. In 1938 at a DuPont laboratory, Roy J. Plunkett discovered Teflon while investigating chemical reactions occurring in tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), a refrigerant gas. Gas molecules had bonded to form polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resin, which had lubricating properties, a high melting point, and was inert to chemicals. The process to create this polymer was refined and patented. When cooking pots and pans are coated with this polymer, they have non-stick surface that makes foods such as eggs and batters easier to cook.

In 1946, Earl Tupper invented Tupperware, which transformed how people stored and prepared food. These plastic containers with airtight seals were light and unbreakable, inspiring food technologists worldwide to use plastic instead of glass and metal materials. Tupperware can be used for cooking in microwaves and was environmentally sounder than disposable plastic and aluminum foil wraps. In the latter twentieth century, microprocessors and materials such as polymers were used to make appliances lighter and easier to use. Engineers strived to make appliances smaller, more versatile and stable, quieter, and requiring less energy to operate. Digital technology made cooking more convenient because appliances with timers and sensors could be programmed to perform certain functions at specific times. Radio programs featured cooking programs that advised cooks. Television introduced people to such notable cooks as Nigella Lawson, Raymond Oliver, Catherine Langeais, and Julia Child. Through the medium of television and video, cooks could demonstrate preparation methods such as basting and stuffing and cooking techniques including sauteing and frying that cookbooks often insufficiently described for inexperienced cooks to follow adequately. Television personalities posted recipes on web sites. Restaurants and food-related industries used the Internet to inform consumers how to make favorite meals at home and use specific products.

By Elizabeth D. Schafer in "Encyclopedia of 20th Century Technology", Colin A. Hempstead (editor), Routledge, London-New York, 2005, p.362-363 vol. 1. Adapted and illustrated to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.