LIVING IN ALEXANDER’S ANCIENT EMPIRE

More is known about the way people in Greece lived than about those who lived within the Persian Empire during Alexander the Great’s time. Much of what is known about the people who lived in the Persian Empire comes from the Greeks, whose histories were published many years later. The Greeks did not think highly of the Persians, so it is likely that many of their accounts are biased. Distortion of the facts is a common problem whenever history written by the winners in war is the only version available.

Attempts to understand the Persian Empire is further complicated by the fact that it had many diverse peoples, each living according to their own customs. But there were similarities. In both east and west, life was very different for the rich than it was for the poor, and city dwellers had different lifestyles than people who lived in the country. Greece was not a very fertile region. It was crisscrossed by mountain ranges and only small areas were suitable for farming. Staple crops were cereals. People typically raised goats rather than cows, because goats needed less land for grazing. People also kept sheep, which they used for both wool and meat.

A Greek city-state included the centrally located city and also the villages and small settlements scattered throughout its territory. Life was similar for people who lived in many of the Greek city-states (with the exception of Sparta, a militaristic monarchy where many aspects of life were quite different). Macedon was a harsh land with many mountains and lowland valleys.

It had greater natural resources than Greece, but life was more difficult there. Most Macedonians were poor farmers, and much of  the population lived in small villages and towns. Towns did not have protective walls and were vulnerable to raids by Macedon’s northern neighbors, the Thracians.

In most regions of the Persian Empire, most people lived on farms and in small villages. They kept sheep and raised crops such as wheat and barley to make bread, sesame seeds for oil, almonds, and figs. Farm goods were broadly available to the public. Some villages only had a few dozen households. For most villagers, the greatest fear was that an army would arrive and take their young men away, along with most of their food, animals, and supplies. Contact with the government was limited to the tax collector, who came once a year. Life probably did not change very much for most villagers after Alexander took over.

Eastern Migration

After Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, many Greeks moved to its western regions. They were drawn by the chance to live more prosperous lives than they could at home, where opportunities were limited.

A primary reason that Greek culture spread throughout Mesopotamia and the areas to the west was that so many Greeks moved there.

Greeks, as well as people from other cultures, settled in cities such as Alexandria in Egypt and Babylon in Mesopotamia. These Hellenistic cities were centers of trade, science, and the arts. But life was not easy for many of the people who lived in them. There were large gaps between the lifestyles of the rich and the poor. The wealthy lived in splendor and luxury, but most city dwellers lived in miserable conditions. Riots were common, especially in Alexandria.

Many of the people who lived in these cosmopolitan cities integrated Greek and Macedonian customs, art, literature, and lifestyles into their own native cultures. However, most people who lived in the countryside were untouched by much of this Hellenistic influence.

Greeks also settled in the many towns that Alexander and his successors established throughout the former Persian Empire. Many of the new towns and ports were named after Alexander. They were designed to be centers of administration and trade, as well as strongholds that protected the local inhabitants. They served as outposts to keep the peace and to provide warnings to headquarters in case of local uprisings.

New towns were usually built at the junction of important roads and placed where they could overlook the surrounding area. They were established close enough to existing villages to enable the newcomers to associate with the natives. But they were also far enough apart that the Macedonian and Greek settlers could keep to themselves.

The first new settlers in a town were typically older, wounded, or disabled war veterans and Greek mercenaries. Many of the veterans settled down with their war loot and a piece of land. Some had started families with women they met while on the march. Later, merchants, craftspeople, and others joined them.

These new towns were typically built on the Greek model. They had schools, offices, shops, a temple, a council chamber, and a gymnasium.

Such a town might also have a theater, a fountain, and a monument. It would always have a public square, which was the focus of all Greek cities.

Life in the City

The typical Greek city was centered on the open market, or agora. City dwellers generally rose at dawn. After washing and eating breakfast, most men would head for the agora (the men did a lot of the marketing).

The agora was divided into sections where people sold fish, meat, produce, wine, flowers, and other goods. Fruit vendors would display their best olives and figs at the tops of their baskets and hide the rotten fruit on the bottom.

The agora was the main place where men socialized, as well. At the agora, men would gather under porches supported by many columns.

They exchanged gossip and discussed the issues of the day. They also socialized at barbershops or at blacksmiths’ workshops, which were warm even during cold weather.

Small businesses and shops of tradesmen, such as upholsterers, barbers, shoemakers, sculptors, doctors, and moneychangers, were located on the streets coming out of the agora. In one section, horse breeders sold or traded animals. In another, men could hire cooks or day laborers to help in the home or field or drive a chariot. There was also a slave market near the agora.

Training the Children

In many Greek city-states, poor children began helping on the farm or in workshops by the age of 10. If they lived in the city, both girls and boys would learn a trade by helping their parents in their daily work.

The more fortunate might become apprentices to skilled craftspeople. (An apprentice learns a trade by working with a master at that trade.)

In Persia children under the age of five were taken care of by their mothers and other female relatives. Children did not see their fathers very often before the age of five, because it was thought that it would be too hard on their fathers if the children died. (Throughout the ancient world, many children died at a very young age.)

Starting at five, life was different for girls and boys in the former Persian Empire. Girls stayed home and learned homemaking skills, such as spinning thread and weaving cloth. They did not learn to read and write, but they did learn how to sing and play instruments. For boys, formal teaching began at the age of five. Boys typically received religious education and training in trades and special skills. Trades were passed down from father to son. Wealthy Persians who did not need to learn a trade were taught to ride horses and to use a bow and arrow. Persian aristocrats built huge parks and hunted in them.

All children also received training in traditional and family values. They were taught to emphasize strong family ties, to be concerned about their  communities, and to accept the authority of the king. They were also taught to tell the truth. Telling a lie was considered to be a huge disgrace.

Marriage and Family

In the Persian Empire before Alexander, many customs were driven by the need for a large army to maintain the king’s power. Persians were encouraged to marry early and to raise large families. Unmarried adults were looked down upon because people thought they were avoiding their duty. Abortion was considered one of the worst crimes and was punishable by death. To produce more children, men were encouraged to practice polygamy (having more than one wife at the same time).

Parents chose husbands for their daughters when the girls were about 11 or 12 years old and the boys were about 13 or 14. Girls married at 15, the age at which they were considered adults. Boys were also thought of as adults at 15, but they married a few years later. By the time a boy turned 25, he would probably have several wives.

When a couple was married the parents of the bride gave the groom’s family a dowry, which was wealth the bride brought to her marriage. The dowry of a well-to-do girl might include precious metals, household items, land, jewelry, money, servants, or slaves.

It was customary for the bride to move into the home of her husband’s family. Marrying close relatives, such as an aunt or even a brother or sister, was considered fortunate in the Persian Empire. One reason for this custom may have been to keep the wealth of the dowry in the family.

In most of Greece, the bride’s family also provided a dowry. If she was wealthy, this might include land that provided an income, along with personal possessions.

A husband was required to maintain the dowry, which could be inherited by the children. If the couple divorced, the husband would have to return it.

A Greek woman’s father or guardian would arrange her marriage while she was still a child. Girls married when they were 14 or 15, and men married at the age of about 30. Unmarried women who were not slaves were rare in ancient Greece.

A legal marriage began when the bride went to live in her husband’s house. The actual ceremony was the procession to the new house.

When they married, husbands became the legal guardians of their wives. Monogamy (marriage to only one person at a time) was practiced throughout ancient Greece. The nuclear family structure—a husband, wife, and children living together—was typical. At different times, other relatives might move in with a married couple.

Soldiering as a Way of Life

Every male Greek citizen was required to serve in either the army or the navy. When they turned 18, Athenian men were trained for two years in military discipline and served as police, prison guards, and on garrison duty. They could be called to fight if a war broke out. The Greeks were disciplined soldiers and were in great demand as mercenaries. One of the reasons that there were so many Greek mercenaries is that soldiering for hire was one of the few ways many Greek men could make a good living. Most fighting was done by part-time citizen-soldiers in small armies.

With water on three sides, the Greeks also maintained a navy.

Poorer citizens could become oarsmen in the fleet. Wealthier Athenians who could afford the equipment, which they had to pay for themselves, joined the army as hoplites, or foot soldiers. The hoplite’s equipment included helmet, shield, breastplate, shin-guards, sword, and spear. The armor was made of bronze or iron plates sewn onto pieces of linen or leather. Soldiers wore bronze helmets with guards that also protected their cheeks and noses. On top of the helmets they usually had a crest of feathers or horsehair. They wore wool cloaks for warmth.

In Alexander’s time the Athenians elected their generals and admirals. A common soldier in one war might be a general in the next. Armies were made up primarily of infantry. Cavalry did not play a large part, because horses were expensive to maintain and Greece’s mountainous lands made them less practical.

Before Alexander’s father, Philip II, came to power, the Macedonian army was primarily made up of poor farmers who served as amateur soldiers during part of the year. Philip turned these amateurs into skilled soldiers and created a professional army in Macedon. Under Philip, soldiers trained all year round, making long marches with heavy packs to build their strength.

Philip also developed a strong and effective Macedonian cavalry.

As in Greece, members of the cavalry had to provide and feed their own horses, making this a position for wealthy men. The strongest military branch in the Persian Empire was the navy.

It included about 400 warships built by men from Phoenicia. Military leadership was limited to Persian aristocrats, but all Persian boys entered the military when they turned 18. Males from ages 15 to 50 could be drafted into the army if they were needed. When they returned, they were expected to marry additional wives and have a lot of children.

Alexander’s Entourage

When ancient kings went to war, long caravans followed their armies to provide them with food, supplies, and other services. The greatest fear of most villagers was that an army and all its followers would arrive and take their young men away, along with food, animals, and supplies that most villages could not spare. Hostile armies simply took whatever they wanted. “Friendly” armies, too, expected—or required—local people to provide food and other supplies. Sometimes, as Alexander’s army did, they would pay for these supplies.

Alexander normally did not allow violence and looting in villages where his army was simply passing through. He rarely took all of a village’s resources. But even though he usually bought the supplies he needed, most farmers had practically nothing extra to sell. Even if they received money, it was not of much use to them, since there was nothing to buy in the countryside.

Alexander traveled with an enormous “moving city” that stretched for miles. The size of his army changed during the 11 years he was in the east, but of the tens of thousands of people who traveled with Alexander, only about half were soldiers. The rest were employed exclusively to take care of the needs of the troops and the civilians traveling with them.

Organizing and transporting the food, water, and equipment necessary for so many people was an incredible challenge. Alexander’s massive entourage included:

Animals: Donkeys and mules carried most of the supplies and bulky goods. Eventually camels were also used. Cattle were brought along for food.

Architects: Alexander founded dozens of fortified towns throughout the Persian Empire and needed architects to help design and build them.

Artists and writers: Alexander was a favorite subject for painters and sculptors. He even had his own personal. sculptor. He also had an official historian whose job was to immortalize him by writing about his exploits.

Baggage train: Hundreds of wagons carried siege machinery and other large objects. Wounded soldiers were sometimes carried in these wagons as well. Still, Alexander made only limited use of wheeled transport, because wagons require roads or level tracks, and these were limited in most of the regions in which he traveled. The harnesses available at that time for animals to pull wagons were also primitive and inefficient, and wagons were too slow for an army noted for its speed of movement.

Clerks and grooms: Accountants, administrators, clerks, grooms, and slaves were needed to manage the army’s funds and carry out day-to-day routines.

Cooks and mess staff: Feeding the army was a full-time job for the large group of people who planned, prepared, and served the food.

Engineers, technicians, mechanics, and trades people: About 4,000 engineers, mechanics, boat and bridge builders, sinkers of wells, blacksmiths, carpenters, tanners (people who make leather), and painters created the equipment and artillery the army used. Experts in forestry and soil composition were needed to estimate the position and course of rivers, bays, and gulfs, and to identify sites for possible harbors. Surveyors mapped the lands the army passed through.

Entertainers and athletes: Whenever the troops stopped, there were games and festivals. Athletes competed and poets,  dramatists, musicians, singers, storytellers, dancers, acrobats, jugglers, and actors entertained. Construction workers and set painters built and decorated theaters.

Merchants: The market that followed the army was as large as that of a capital city, with a surprising array of goods for sale. Whenever the caravan stopped, horse traders, jewelers, and other merchants set up little markets to supply the newly wealthy soldiers with things to buy.

Scholars, intellectuals, and philosophers: Lively conversation and learning were as important while traveling as they were at home.

Scientists: Conquering may have been Alexander’s number one priority, but collecting knowledge was a close second. Mineralogists, zoologists, botanists, and other scientists collected specimens of plants and animals to study. They made important discoveries about the geography, climate, and geology of the east.

Scouts and spies: Cartography (making maps) and acting as translators were among the duties of scouts and spies.

Soothsayers and diviners: Soothsaying, or reading signs and omens to predict the future, was an important job. Astronomers (more like our present-day astrologers) were also on hand to make predictions and give advice.

Women and children: Women whom soldiers had taken as mates along the way, and their children, often traveled with the army.

Fashion Statements

Greek people wore simple clothing that they wove from wool or plant fibers. They also made clothing from animal skins. The wealthy wore muslin (a cotton cloth) or linen. Both men and women went barefoot indoors and wore a draped garment called a chiton, which fell about their body in folds. A woman’s chiton reached her ankles, a man’s reached his knees. The chitons were kept close to the body with two belts. Most chitons were short-sleeved or sleeveless. Until Alexander’s time, wealthy Greek men had long hair and beards. In ancient Greece, Rome, and the Middle East, intricately groomed long hair was considered a mark of beauty. Caring for it was a time consuming task that most often only the rich could afford. Slaves and ordinary people, who did not have the time or the money that elaborate hairstyles required, commonly wore their hair short. When Alexander joined the Macedonian army, he cut his shoulderlength hair to the neck because he did not want it to interfere with his armor.

He also shaved his beard—legend has it that this was to make sure an enemy could not grab him by the chin in close combat. When he became king he ordered his soldiers to shave their beards as well. From his time onward, most Greek men had short hair and stopped wearing beards.

In the Persian Empire, men’s beards grew long. They thought it indecent to show any part of their bodies other than their faces, so their clothes draped from head to toe. Both men and women wore long robes. Wealthy people wore elaborate clothes made of luxurious fabrics, such as imported silk. Wealthy men and women both wore jewelry, including rings, earrings, and bracelets set with precious stones.

The king wore a flowing robe of purple (the traditional color of royalty in ancient times) interwoven with gold threads. He also wore a magnificent crown with precious gems and, frequently, beautiful earrings, chains, and bracelets.

Most Macedonians and Greeks thought Persian clothes were too showy. But when he was not in battle, Alexander often wore Persian clothing himself, especially in the later part of his reign. He wore a long robe, cape, sash, and headband in the royal purple and white.

Simple Homes

In many Greek city-states, the wealthy, army leaders, government officials, and leading merchants had large, comfortable homes, fine clothing, and the best food. Everyone else lived very simply. (A notable exception was Sparta, where the lifestyle even for the wealthy was very spare and simple.)

Although the Greeks built large public buildings, houses were typically small and cramped together in crooked little streets. They were made of materials that could be found locally, such as rough stone, wood, thatch (straw and reeds), and adobe bricks that were made from earth and straw that was dried in the sun. Many houses were made of clay bricks and had very small windows.

The center of household activity was in the back, in rooms arranged around an open courtyard. The windows faced into the courtyard. (Today many Mediterranean houses are built on a similar plan.) In the courtyard was an altar for sacrifices to the gods and a cistern, or tank, to catch rainwater. Water from public fountains had to be carried into the house with jugs—a task that fell to the women or slaves.

The couch was the most important piece of furniture in the Greek home. Couches were used for sleeping, eating, reading, and writing. Plump cushions enabled people to lie back in comfort while eating. They ate from small, round tables with three legs, which were portable and low enough to be pushed under a couch when they were not being used. Lamps made of baked earth or metal burned olive oil for indoor lighting. A person going out at night would carry a torch or a lantern made of horn.

In the Persian Empire raw building materials included mud brick, stone, and timber. Local builders had access to limestone, but did not have granite or marble.

Bitumen or mineral pitch, a black, tarry material unique to the Middle and Near East, was used for waterproofing and sealing, as a glue, and as mortar for bricks.

Baked bricks were sometimes used to build forts, temples, and expensive private homes for the aristocrats and those who worked for the government.

The homes of the wealthy were large and filled with expensive objects and elaborate furnishings. They often had landscaped  courtyards and were surrounded by high walls of stone or brick. Zoroastrianism, the largest religion in the Persian Empire, encouraged people to maintain arbors (shady groves), orchards, and gardens. Gardens with roses, shade trees, and citrus or pistachio trees were common.

Many gardens also had ponds and fountains. Some of the kings of the Persian Empire planted and maintained trees in their own gardens.

The houses of poor people were much more modest. A typical house was a rectangular, two-story structure. The house was often divided into separate living quarters, and members of one or more extended families lived under the same roof. They used stairs or ladders, placed both inside and outside the house, to get to the second floor.

Most houses were built of unbaked mud bricks. Some were built on a foundation made of fired bricks (firing hardened the brick) or stone.

The roof was made of timber beams, which were covered with three layers of material: reed matting, then a layer of lime, and finally a thick layer of mud. The ground floor was earth, covered by reed matting or swept smooth. The top floor might be covered with wool carpet, animal skins, or felt blankets.

Simple Food

Macedonians and Greeks ate simply. Bread was the main part of their diet. It was baked from barley imported into Greece from the Persian Empire. Wealthier people were able to make bread from wheat. A family could buy its bread from small bakery stands or make it at home. Wives or household slaves ground the grain, shaped the dough, and baked the bread in a pottery oven that was heated by charcoal.

Greeks also ate vegetables, olives, fruit, and goat cheese. Fish was a popular food in this coastal nation. Wealthier people ate baked turbot, steamed bass, fried shrimp, and smoked herring, as well as squid, eels, and sardines. Vegetables included beans, cabbage, lentils, lettuce, and peas. On special occasions, roasted sheep might be served. Dishes were flavored with garlic and onions.

The Greeks also used salt, which they took from the sea.

Only the wealthy could afford to eat meat regularly. Most people enjoyed it only occasionally. For some, meat was only available when the state  provided it as part of animal sacrifices during religious festivals. It was grilled over coals on a pottery brazier, a dish shaped much like a modern picnic grill that contained burning

charcoal.

Meat was easier to come by in Macedon, which had a lot of forests. Wild boar and deer were part of the Macedonian diet. People in Sparta also ate more meat than those in the other Greek city-states.

Everything was washed down with wine, mainly from local vineyards. The wine was usually diluted with water. The Greeks drank both white and red wine. The average Greek household produced much of what it needed to survive, including cheese, bread, vegetables, olives, and wine. They could also buy these staples from local markets.

Wine, oil, grain, fruits, and vegetables were kept in large clay jars.

Olives, another staple of the Greek diet, were eaten whole or pressed into olive oil. The Greeks poured olive oil over raw vegetables and bread and used it as an ingredient in sauces. With a climate that was excellent for growing olive trees and grape vines, the Greeks made superb olive oil and wine. A typical Greek breakfast was made up simply of bread and wine.

Many Athenians had a light lunch in the mid-morning, often eating the leftovers from their meal the day before. The agora closed at noon, and men might purchase sausages and pancakes covered with honey from a local vendor for lunch. Most people ate just two meals: breakfast and a late lunch. Dinner in the modern sense—a nighttime meal—was unusual.

The Greeks ate everything other than soup with their hands. Food was cut into bite-sized pieces before it was served. In between courses, people wiped their hands on a piece of dough or bread. They later gave this to the family dog to eat. For dessert, they ate figs, nuts, and sticky pastries, which the Greeks invented.

In the Persian Empire, the typical diet of the lower classes included barley, dates, milk, and cheese. Sesame oil rather than olive oil was the main cooking oil.

Because of their extensive trade with outlying parts of the empire, the people in the Persian Empire had an abundance of wheat, meat, wine, honey, citrus fruits, and dried fish. They imported  spices from India and had a much spicier diet than did the Greeks.

Most people in the Persian Empire believed that too much food would make them weak and overweight. They generally ate only one meal a day, but that one meal would often stretch out to take up much of the day.

The ancient Persians also developed techniques for farming and raising animals that have lasted through the centuries. They  introduced new crops, including barley, alfalfa, and rice, throughout their empire. They also may have been the first to domesticate chickens.

Greek  Gods

The Greeks and Macedonians worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses and sacrificed to them. The most important were the 12 great Olympian gods. They were believed to live on Mount Olympus in northern Greece, the region’s highest mountain. Different gods presided over different aspects of life. Alexander worshipped and sacrificed to many gods, including Zeus, the king of the gods, and Athena, who had been the patron goddess of the hero Achilles— whom Alexander believed was his ancestor on his mother’s side of the family.

In addition to worshipping the Olympians, people in different regions practiced local faiths. These involved worshipping various lesser gods and goddesses, including nymphs (minor nature goddesses, typically pictured as beautiful young women), naiads (nymphs who lived in bodies of fresh water, such as brooks, springs, and fountains), river gods, and demons. The Greeks also worshipped demigods—beings who were half human and half god. One of the most famous of these was another man Alexander believed was his ancestor, Heracles (his Roman name was Hercules). The god Dionysus was popular in Macedon. Dionysus was the son of Zeus and a mortal woman. He was the god of nature and fertility and the giver of wine. Alexander’s mother, Olympias, participated in rituals honoring him. She was said to have introduced Alexander into this cult at an early age. Alexander honored Dionysus at frequent drinking celebrations, known as comuses, and with dramatic performances.

The rules of behavior were based on what people believed the gods expected. For example, the Greeks believed the gods expected them to provide hospitality to strangers and proper burial for family members. They also believed the gods punished humans for arrogance and violence. When misfortune struck, it was considered a sign that someone had offended one of the gods. Offenses might include forgetting to make a sacrifice, violating the purity of a temple area, or breaking an oath or sworn agreement.

The Greeks believed their gods had human form and were, for the most part, physically perfect. Although they were all-powerful, they had many common human faults. They were capable of jealousy, revenge, pettiness, and vanity.

To please the gods, people made sacrifices and offerings. Sacrifices were also made as thanks to the gods for blessings and to enlist their support. Alexander sacrificed to the gods before every battle as well as at many other times. The ritual of sacrifice was the primary form of contact between people and gods.

While individuals could offer sacrifices in their homes, most sacrifices took place as regularly scheduled events in the community. Each city state had a patron deity, or supporting god, and its citizens honored that god. Athens, for example, was named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom. Ritual offerings might  include art, money and other valuables, fruits, vegetables,

and small cakes. Animal sacrifice was a tradition that may have come from prehistoric hunters who wanted to show respect for the divine forces that provided them with animals for food. Animal sacrifice involved strict rules and elaborate procedures. Different cults had different rituals, all performed by priests and priestesses. One of the few rights Greek women had was that of becoming priestesses.

Every Greek temple was dedicated to a particular god. These structures were looked upon as places where the gods and goddesses they were built for actually lived. Temples were typically rectangular and made of marble. Inside stood brightly painted marble statues of the particular god or goddess, with an altar in front.

Some temples had special shrines known as oracles, at which the gods were believed to communicate with human beings. These communications, including answers to questions and interpretation of signs, came through a priest or priestess at the shrine, who was also called an oracle. Often the answers these oracles provided were not very clear and could have more than one meaning.

The Macedonians were very tolerant of other religions. For centuries they had incorporated the beliefs and gods of other religions into their own. Alexander offered sacrifices to the local gods in the areas he conquered.

Religion in the Persian Empire

The kings of the Persian Empire allowed people in the nations they defeated to practice their own customs and follow their own religious beliefs. However, most people in the Persian Empire, along with the kings, followed Zoroastrianism. Its founder was a prophet named Zoroaster, whom historians believe to have lived some time between 1000 and 600 b.c.e. in what is now Uzbekistan. (A prophet is a person who is considered to be an inspired teacher or someone who declares the message of God.)

The Zoroastrians believe there is one supreme god, Ahura-Mazda.

He created everything that was good, including heaven, earth, people, truth, joy, light, and fire. But Ahura-Mazda had an evil twin brother, known simply as the Evil One, who created everything bad. In contrast to the Greeks, who believed that people’s lives were controlled by the gods, the Persians believed they could choose between good or evil. Zoroaster preached that the world was the arena for a constant battle between good and evil. Every time someone did or thought something good, he or she was strengthening the power of Ahura-Mazda. Whenever people behaved badly, they were tipping the balance in favor of the Evil One. Zoroaster discouraged animal sacrifice. He preached that animals were too valuable to kill. Fire was an important part of Zoroastrian religious rituals, and many trees are considered to be sacred.

Unlike the Greeks, the peoples of the Persian Empire did not depict their gods as human beings. Stone carvings portrayed Ahura-Mazda as a winged god who often appeared to be blessing the kings. Although people believed the Persian kings were superior to other humans, they were not considered gods but rather the agents of Ahura-Mazda.

Some people in the Persian Empire also worshipped other gods. For example, a popular religious festival in ancient Persia was held in honor of Mithra, the sun god.

CONECTIONS

Alexander’s Three Wives

Macedonian and Persian kings practiced polygamy. Alexander married three women, all after leaving Macedon. The first was Roxane in 327 b.c.e. Then, in 324 b.c.e., he married both  Parysatis, the daughter of a Persian aristocrat, and Stateira, King Darius III’s daughter. All of Alexander’s marriages were thought to have been motivated by his desire to gain some political advantage. Persian kings carried polygamy much further.

Some had several wives and as many as several hundred concubines (women who officially lived with the king but were not married to him). They all lived together in their own housing. The part of the palace where they lived was forbidden to all but their servants and the king, and was known as a harem.

Beauty Is in the Eye

Today, millions of dollars are spent on eye makeup and other cosmetics for enhancing one’s looks. Cosmetics was a booming business in Alexander’s time too. Even back then, eye makeup was an essential tool for looking good. But it had a practical aspect too. In the dry desert climates, eye makeup protected the delicate skin around the eyes, kept off flies whose bites could cause inflammations, and sheltered the eyes from the sun’s glare—just as modern football players paint black streaks under their eyes for the same reason.

Greek women also spent hours on facials and often went to bed wearing a “beauty mask.” a popular recipe was one whose main ingredient was flour. It would then be rinsed off with milk the following morning. Just as today, these remedies were meant to give the skin a fresh, young glow. Like modern women, the ancient ones wanted a smooth canvas on which to apply the many colors of their face paint.

Versatile Olive Oil

The Greeks found an amazing number of uses for olive oil. it was used in medicine to disinfect and heal wounds, to maintain metal, as a lubricant, as soap, in religious rituals, to preserve clothing, and as a lamp fuel. Athletes spread it over their bodies as a protection against chilly weather. The Greeks used about 16 gallons of olive oil a year per person. Only about a quarter of this amount was consumed as food. Although today both Greece and Italy produce large quantities of this fragrant green oil, Spain leads the world in olive oil production. It is still a practical commodity.

modern cold-pressing techniques allow the oil’s flavor, color, and nutritional value to be retained for several months without refrigeration.

Cold-pressing is done in many stages, so that the oil is gradually pressed out. The olive oil that comes from the last pressing, called olive foots or olive residue, is inedible. But even at this final stage the oil, as in Ancient times, has many uses. Olive residue is an ingredient in soaps and detergents, textiles and medicines, and of course, in cosmetics.

How Sweet It Is

Although sugar was being used in India probably as early as 800 b.c.e., it took its sweet time traveling west into the Persian Empire and beyond. Initially the ancient Greeks and Romans used sugar primarily as a medicine. But Alexander was probably familiar with its taste in a more pleasant context. The royals and other of the most wealthy Greek and Macedonian families also prized it as a food.

It was only in the 10th century that the use of sugar began to spread more widely into Europe. By then traders from Venice were becoming fabulously rich importing sugar, along with silks and spices such as nutmeg and cloves from the far East. for hundreds of years, sugar remained a rare treat that only the wealthiest could afford. Finally the exotic sweet reached the new World when Christopher Columbus took sugar cane there on one of his expeditions. One of the best forms of sugar has its roots in the Arabic culture. The Arabs crystallized sugar as a sweet treat they called qandi—from which comes the English word “candy.”

Bedbug Spice

The spice known as coriander, native to Greece, is actually the seeds of the cilantro plant. Its name comes from the Greek word koris or bedbug, because the Greeks thought the leaves and the unripe seeds of the plant smelled like bedbugs when they were crushed.

God or Man?

Greek mythology contains many stories of Zeus having children with human women. many historians believe Alexander’s mother, Olympias, told Alexander since his childhood that Zeus was his real father. When Alexander entered Egypt in 332 b.c.e., he visited Siwa, where there was a famous temple to the god Ammon, the Egyptian counterpart of Zeus. According to legend, the oracle confirmed that the god Ammon/Zeus was his true father.

Many historians dispute this story. One theory is that when Alexander entered the temple, the priest greeted him by saying “o paidion” (“my child”), but he mispronounced the words and said “o pai diôn” (“son of Zeus”). The secret of Siwa has never been known, because Alexander never told anyone what the oracle said to him. However, after that visit the king often wore two ram’s horns—the sacred headdress of Ammon. later, Alexander petitioned Athens to ask that they grant him the status of god, which they reluctantly did.

Indian Wise Men

When Alexander and his troops entered India in march 326 B.c.e., they met people with a variety of faiths. At the time Buddhism was about two centuries old and was spreading throughout India. The Buddha was an Indian prince who lived some time between 560 and 480 B.c.e. Saddened by the suffering of the world, he left his luxurious palace and spent the next six years meditating. He then achieved enlightenment—the truth about the world and about the human condition. He taught that to live an unselfish life is the way to end suffering in the world. Some of Alexander’s followers became Buddhists. Alexander also encountered a group of Brahman sages—wise men who wandered naked without possessions and who were fed by the community. Their religion was hinduism. Having renounced (given up) all physical pleasures and the life of the flesh, they were detached from the joys and pains of the human condition. Alexander was highly curious about Brahman beliefs and personally interviewed these sages. They told him that people experience many lifetimes and that human existence is a punishment for previous mistakes. They also introduced him to the concept of nirvana, a mental state that enables people to escape from the never-ending chain of reincarnation, or being born again and again. When the holy men discovered that Alexander’s goal was conquest, they stamped the ground to show him that you can only really possess the ground you stand on. Alexander disagreed, but admired their independence. One of them, Calanus (d. 324 B.c.e.), became Alexander’s adviser and returned to Persia with him.

Gifts of the Magi

The leaders of Zoroastrianism were priests, or wise men, called magi. By the first century c.e. the word in its singular form—magus or magos—was often in use to mean a mysterious person who had access to secret knowledge that was not available to the common people. it is used this way in the Bible. from these roots came the English word magic. The most famous magi were the three wise men who visited Jesus Christ when he was born. a star is said to have led them to his location in a manger in Bethlehem. They brought him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh—goods that were  commonly traded between east and west.

Praise Good Thoughts

The Avesta is the scared text of Zoroastrianism. It is usually divided into sections relating to ritual, hymns of praise, the liturgy (religious service), and the law. Yasna is the main book of liturgy, or worship. It is also the word used for the Zoroastrian act of worship. This text is from the Yasna introduction, verse four.

I praise good thoughts, good words, and good deeds and those that are to be thought, spoken, and done. I do accept all good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. I do renounce all evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds.

(Source: “Yasna (sacred liturgy) Avesta.” Zoroastrian

Archives. Available online. URL : http://www.avesta.org/)

Zoroastrianism Today

Zoroaster’s teachings spread to nearby lands during the Hellenistic period, and influenced the development of other religions. For example, the Persians believed that ahura-mazda appointed a guardian angel for every person on earth. The concept of angels was later absorbed into the beliefs of Judaism and Christianity, along with other aspects of Zoroastrianism, such as a final judgment day. Zoroastrian teachings have been passed down orally for centuries. Its followers still perform ancient rituals, such lighting lamps and tending sacred trees. Fire still plays a central role, and Zoroastrian sanctuaries are called fire temples.

In Iran today, Islam has largely replaced Zoroastrianism. But a few thousand Zoroastrians still practice their ancient religion there. the largest population of Iranian Zoroastrians can be found in the desert town of Yazd, which dates back to the Sassanian times (224–651). Local Zoroastrians claim that the sacred fire housed inside Yazd’s ateshkadeh, or fire temple, has been burning since the fourth century c.e. outside of Iran, the largest population

following this religion today can be found in Bombay, India. Its members are descended from Persians who moved there more than 1,000 years ago. There is also a sizeable Zoroastrian population in Los Angeles.

·   By  Debra Skelton & Pamela Dell  in: ‘Great Empires of the Past: Empire of Alexander the Great’, Chelsea House , an imprint of Infobase Publishing, New York, 2009, chapter V p.89-107, edited to be posted by Leopoldo Costa.